Aircraft Engines Пособие по английскому языку

 ИРКУТСКИЙ ФИЛИАЛ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОГО ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО БЮДЖЕТНОГО ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОГО УЧРЕЖДЕНИЯ ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ «МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ АВИАЦИИ» (МГТУ ГА)

Кафедра Гуманитарных и социально-политических дисциплин (ГСПД)

Кузнецова Н.Б.

Aircraft Engines

Пособие по английскому языку

для студентов II курса специальности 162300

Иркутск 2013

Рецензент: к.фл.н., доцент Портнова Т.Ю.

Кузнецова Н.Б.

Aircraft Engines: учебное пособие. – Иркутск: МГТУ ГА (ИФ), 2013.

Учебно-методическое пособие составлено с учётом целей и задач программы по иностранному языку для специальности 162300 Техническая эксплуатация летательных аппаратов и двигателей.

Целью обучения является приобретение студентами коммуникативной компетенции, позволяющей использовать иностранный язык как в профессиональной деятельности, так и для целей самообразования.

Рассмотрено и одобрено на заседании кафедры гуманитарных и социально-политических дисциплин МГТУ ГА (ИФ) протокол № 5/1 от 2013 года.

contents

Unit 1. Aircraft Mechanics and Service Technicians: Nature of the Work.. 4

Unit 2. Guide to Propulsion.. 13

Unit 3. Power Plant is the Heart of the Engine. 20

Unit 4. Main Parts of the Gas Turbine Engine and their functions 36

Texts For Reading And Writing Practice. 48

appendix

Методические рекомендации по написанию рефератов и аннотаций.. 68

The Complex Object. 71

The Complex Subject. 76

Glossary.. 83

Список литературы.. 87

Unit I

Aircraft Mechanics and Service Technicians: Nature of the Work

Essential Vocabulary

1)            operation and maintenance ( эксплуатация и техническое обслуживание); efficient operation and maintenance of a gas-turbine engine; to provide efficient operation and maintenance of a gas-turbine engine the mechanic should be familiar with the engine design; operational and periodic maintenance; operational maintenance requires checking all the troublesome units and systems of the engine;

2)            in particular (в особенности, в частности); for any specific engine in particular; be familiar with the manufacturer's instructions for any specific engine in particular;

3)            precautions rules (меры предосторожности); certain precautions rules; certain precautions rules should be inspected for foreign objects;

4)      inflammable material (воспламеняющийся материал); to remove all inflammable material; in operating the engine at full power it is necessary to remove all inflammable material from the area;

5)      engine compartments; engine compartments and nacelles (отсеки двигателя и гондолы); engine compartments and nacelles are checked for cleanliness and security.

6)      fuel and oil leaks; all fuel and oil leaks, loose parts, cracks, corrosion, missed rivers, warping, buckling, burning and other undesirable conditions; all fuel and oil leaks, loose parts, cracks, corrosion, missed rivers, warping, buckling, burning and other undesirable conditions should be revealed and eliminated (все утечки топлива и масла, незакрепленные детали, трещины, коррозии, подтёки, деформации, прогибы, обгорания и другие несоответствующие состояния должны быть выявлены и устранены);

7)      minor inspection (частичный осмотр); minor inspection and major inspection; to include minor inspection and major inspection; The periodic engine maintenance includes minor inspection and major inspection

Read and translate the text paying attention to new words and phrases.

Text: Engine Maintenance

In order to keep the engine in working condition, it is necessary to provide its inspecting at regular intervals. To provide efficient operation and maintenance of a gas-turbine engine the mechanic should be familiar with the engine design, inspection, starting and overhaul procedures in general; and the manufacturer's instructions for any specific engine in particular. In performing maintenance operations certain precautions rules should be inspected for foreign objects; in operating the engine at full power it is necessary to remove all inflammable material from the area; no work should be performed on the ignition system or spark plugs during engine running; the hot starts should be avoided as the turbine or other parts overheating usually requires the engine overhaul.

Maintenance of any gas-turbine engine includes operational and periodic maintenance. Operational maintenance is performed prior to every take-off and after the aircraft landing with the view of checking all systems and units for their readiness for flight. It is called pre-flight and post-flight maintenance, correspondingly. Operational maintenance requires checking all the troublesome units and systems of the engine. Engine compartments and nacelles are checked for cleanliness and security of all lines and fittings. All fuel and oil leaks, loose parts, cracks, corrosion, missed rivers, warping, buckling, burning and other undesirable conditions should be revealed and eliminated. Operational maintenance also includes checking the fuel, oil, water and hydraulic fluid level before each flight.

The periodic engine maintenance includes minor inspection (performed every 60 hours of flight) and major inspection (performed every 200 and 600 hours of flight). When the engine was operated during a certain predetermined number of hours it is removed from the aircraft and sent to the overhaul base. The engine overhaul includes complete disassembly, washing, delectation and repair or replacement of worn units or parts.

Text: Duties and Responsibilities

Essential Vocabulary

1) to be responsible for – нести ответственность за ч.-л.

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible for making sure airplanes are safe for flying.

Some of the parts aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible for maintaining include the engine, the landing gear, and the instruments inside the cockpit used to determine direction and altitude.

2) to be familiar with – быть хорошо осведомлённым в ч.-л.

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians need to be familiar with these complex systems.

3) to be employed in – работать где-либо

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are employed in aircraft hangars, in air fields, or at stations where aircraft repairs are done.

4) to be able to – (мочь), быть в состоянии

The mechanic must first be able to get to the engine, which usually involves using lifts, hoists, or ladders because of where it is located.

There are also aircraft mechanics and service technicians that are able to repair the airframe and work on the power sources.

5) to check for – осматривать, выявлять, проверять

They will also check for wear, defects, corrosion, and cracks in other parts of the airplane, including the tail, the fuselage or body of the craft, and the wings.

6) to involve – включать в себя, касаться, вовлекать.

Involved – сложный.

The mechanic must first be able to get to the engine, which usually involves using lifts, hoists, or ladders because of where it is located.

Other aspects of maintaining and repairing the aircraft can be more involved.

 in accordance with - согласуясь с ( чем-л. ), в соответствии с ( чем-л. )

They are responsible for maintaining the aircraft, repairing parts that are broken or worn, and inspecting the aircraft on a regular basis in accordance with the schedules.

7) to be licensed as – быть квалифицированным как

Those who are licensed as power plant aircraft mechanics are skilled enough to fix the engines and, to an extent, the propellers.

8) to provide with – обеспечивать чем-л.

These tools can provide the mechanics with information about the essential functions of many of the different parts of the aircraft.

9) to be taken apart – разбираться на части

The engine must be taken apart completely and then each part must be thoroughly checked for wear and cracks.

10) to work in shifts – работать по сменам

So aircraft mechanics and service technicians typically work in shifts, sometimes during evenings and weekends.

11) to be well-versed in smth, to know a great deal about – хорошо разбираться в чем-л.

Mechanics need to be well-versed in computers and advanced electronic systems. They also must know a great deal about composite materials and turbine engines.

Read and translate the text paying attention to new words and phrases and do some tasks to every part.

Part I

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible for making sure airplanes are safe for flying. The airplanes that are utilized by many airlines nowadays have increasingly complex operating systems, which have been developed in the interest of keeping the passengers safe. Aircraft mechanics and service technicians need to be familiar with these complex systems and know how to prevent mechanical failures that can endanger the passengers and crew.

They are responsible for maintaining the aircraft, repairing parts that are broken or worn, and inspecting the aircraft on a regular basis in accordance with the schedules.

Some of the parts aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible for maintaining include the engine, the landing gear, and the instruments inside the cockpit used to determine direction and altitude. They also maintain and repair the brakes, air-conditioning mechanisms, pumps and valves. These mechanics and technicians need to make sure they are replacing parts at regular intervals and maintaining a log for each piece of aircraft indicating its maintenance and repair history.

True or false?

1.           Aircraft mechanics and service technicians provide safe flights with their thorough ground maintenance.

2.           Ground crew doesn’t have to know more about new operational systems.

3.           Airplanes are inspected by aircraft mechanics and service technicians in accordance with the season.

4.           To maintain some instruments inside the cockpit is also their duty.

Part II

Mechanics often use tools within the airplane itself to find and diagnose problems. These tools can provide the mechanics with information about the essential functions of many of the different parts of the aircraft. Other aspects of maintaining and repairing the aircraft can be more involved. Maintaining and repairing an engine, for instance, can be a very time-consuming and grueling process. The mechanic must first be able to get to the engine, which usually involves using lifts, hoists, or ladders because of where it is located. The engine must be taken apart completely and then each part must be thoroughly checked for wear and cracks. Often imaging equipment using X-ray technology and other instruments calibrated to give precise measurements are used. Often the beginnings of engine wear are invisible to the naked eye, so aircraft mechanics and service technicians must know how to use imaging equipment to find the first signs of deterioration to evaluate whether the part needs to be replaced. They will also check for wear, defects, corrosion, and cracks in other parts of the airplane, including the tail, the fuselage or body of the craft, and the wings. They also may repair various surfaces of the aircraft, including those made of sheet metal, and will check to be sure the aircraft cables still have enough tension to operate properly. If they do not, it is the mechanic’s responsibility to replace them. Once they have examined and repaired all of the airplane’s parts, they also need to test each part for functionality.

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians can also become airframe mechanics, which provide maintenance and repairs for many parts of the plane, except for the controls, propellers, and power sources. Those who are licensed as power plant aircraft mechanics are skilled enough to fix the engines and, to an extent, the propellers. There are also aircraft mechanics and service technicians that are able to repair the airframe and work on the power sources.

Match the definitions with the bold-typed words in the Part II

Implements, rust, importance, competent, power supplies, failings, labor-intensive, to repair the engines, to assay, exact, for example, corruption

Part III

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are sometimes needed to be on call in order to fix problems that occur during the pilot’s preflight check. If the pilot or co-pilot notices that something on the plane doesn’t work, such as the gauges or controls, a mechanic will need to be called in to fix these before the plane can safely take off. The mechanic will have to work quickly but also thoroughly to ensure the safety of the aircraft. Mechanics often specialize in different kinds of aircraft. There are aircraft mechanics and service technicians who specialize in repairing commercial jets, helicopters, and smaller planes powered by propellers.

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are employed in aircraft hangars, in air fields, or at stations where aircraft repairs are done. They have a large responsibility not only to ensure the safety of the aircraft, but also to do so quickly in order to facilitate the maintenance of flight schedules. They must be strong enough to lift objects that can weigh more than 50 pounds. They are often required to work in unnatural positions or climb on top of ladders and scaffolding, which can be precarious. When they test the parts of the airplane, they usually have to protect their ears from the excessively loud noise to which they will be exposed. Airlines need mechanics to be available 24 hours a day, so aircraft mechanics and service technicians typically work in shifts, sometimes during evenings and weekends. They often work overtime as well.

The technology used to build aircraft is changing all of the time, and more aircraft are now built with high-tech capabilities. Because of this, mechanics need to be well-versed in computers and advanced electronic systems. They also must know a great deal about composite materials and turbine engines as well, because these components are used with increasing frequency in the construction of aircraft.

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians must know a great deal about physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science and drafting. These academic disciplines provide aircraft mechanics students with the scientific grounding they will need to understand how the aircraft works, how repairs are made, and what repairs need to be made to keep the aircraft safe and functional. Mechanics also must be able to read and write English, update the maintenance log, and provide repair and maintenance reports to their supervisors or to pilots.

Beyond formal training, there are many qualifications that aircraft mechanics and service technicians must have. They must be ethical, self-motivated, reliable, and able to diagnose and fix complex mechanical or electrical problems. They also must be able and willing to climb ladders and stand on scaffolding. People who are afraid of heights are not suited to this position.

There are many opportunities for professional advancement in this field. Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are able to advance to many different positions, including inspectors, lead inspectors, supervisors, or crew leaders. Aircraft mechanics can progress more rapidly if they gain a certification to inspect aircraft. They also become owners of aircraft repair facilities, work in repair consulting, or help researchers and designers build better aircraft.

Answer the questions to the Part III:

1.            Why do aircraft mechanics and service technicians are sometimes needed to be on call?

2.            What academic disciplines are of great importance for future aircraft mechanics and service technicians?

3.            Where aircraft mechanics and service technicians are usually employed in?

4.            What character features are necessary for people of these professions?

5.            Could you give examples of opportunities for professional advancement in this field?

Exercise 1. Match English words with their Russian equivalents:

1.            professional advancement	1.            Обновлять журнал техобслуживания
2.            to facilitate the maintenance	2.            История ремонта
3.            to update the maintenance log	3.            Первые признаки повреждения
4.            enough tension	4.            Тщательно проверены
5.            Precarious ladders and scaffolding	5.            Для облегчения обслуживания
6.            work overtime	6.            Достаточное натяжение
7.            the first signs of deterioration	7.            Профессиональный рост
8.            thoroughly checked	8.            Работать сверхурочно
9.            lifts and hoists	9.            Шаткие лестницы и строительные леса
10.       repair history	10.       Невооруженный взгляд
11.       pumps and valves	11.       Лифты и подъёмники
12.       endanger the passengers and crew	12.       Длительный и изнурительный процесс
13.       sheet metal	13.       Листовой металл
14.       time-consuming and grueling process	14.       Механические повреждения
15.       naked eye	15.       Насосы и клапана
16.       mechanical failures	16.       Подвергать опасности пассажиров и экипаж

                            Text: Daily, weekly and transit checks.

Daily checks

This is the lowest scheduled check, also called post-flight check, maintenance pre-flight check, service check, and overnight check. It is an inspection of an aircraft for obvious damage and deterioration of its general condition and security. It also reviews the aircraft log for discrepancies and corrective action. Daily checks require specific equipment and tools to ensure an airplane remains airworthy. Usually daily checks are performed every 24 or          48 hours of accumulated flight time. Some of the daily check items include:

Ø Tail skid shock strut pop-up indicator

Ø Fluid levels

Ø General security and cleanliness of the flight deck

Ø Emergency equipment

Weekly checks

Technicians fill or change oils and fluids, such as hydraulic fluid, starter oil, engine oil and generator drive fluids. Apart from that, specialists inspect the general visual condition of airframe systems, landing gear, and the power plant. All external and internal lights are checked, and a self-test is run on the A/C. If required, tires are changed and fluids replenished in hydraulic and engine oil systems.

Transit checks

Between flights, line technicians perform a transit check of the airplane at the airport ramp. This includes a walk-around inspection of the airplane for obvious damage, required servicing, correction of discrepancies, and operational tasks specified for the airplane. Qualified ground personnel carries out a visual pre-flight walk-around of the airplane, and the flight crew completes a pre-flight checklist from the flight deck. Together, these precautions should help ensure the airworthiness of the airplane.

A-checks

A-checks belong to a higher level of scheduled maintenance procedures. Normally it is performed at a designated maintenance station on route and includes the opening of all access panels for checking and servicing certain items. Special tooling, test equipment and servicing is required.

Examples of A-check items include:

Ø General external visual inspection of aircraft structure for evidence of damage, deformation, corrosion, and missing parts

Ø Crew oxygen system pressure

Ø Operation of emergency lights

Ø Lubricating the nose gear retract actuator

Ø The pressure of parking brake accumulator 

Ø Testing the Built-in Test Equipment (BITE) and Flap/Slat Electronics Unit.

Fill in the table using the information from the text.

Type of Check	Frequency	Examples ( 3 or more)
Daily check		1) 2) 3)
	Once a week
		1) 2) 3)
A-check

Exercise 2. True or False?  Prove your opinion using these conversational phrases.

1) Daily checks don’t require specific equipment and tools.

2) Technicians perform a transit check of the airplane at the airport of departure.

3) A-checks include the opening of all access panels for checking and servicing certain items.

4) Flight crew carries out a visual pre-flight walk-around of the airplane, and qualified ground personnel completes a pre-flight checklist from the flight deck.

5) Weekly checks are the same as the lowest scheduled check post-flight check, maintenance pre-flight check, service check, and overnight check.

6) Transit checks are performed every 24 or 48 hours of accumulated flight time.

7) Tires can be changed and fluids can be replenished in hydraulic and engine oil systems during weekly checks.

Unit II

Guide to Propulsion

.

For aircraft, the principal of action and reaction is very important. It helps to explain the generation of lift from an airfoil. In this problem, the air is deflected downward by the action of the airfoil, and in reaction the wing is pushed upward. Similarly, for a spinning ball, the air is deflected to one side, and the ball reacts by moving in the opposite direction. A jet engine also produces thrust through action and reaction. The engine produces hot exhaust gases which flow out the back of the engine. In reaction, a thrusting force is produced in the opposite direction.

Exercise 1. Guess the meaning of the international words.

Nouns

machine, group, problem, maximum, factor, period, mass, variation, vibration, minute, gas, turbine, rocket, form, system, electricity, contact, cylinder, compress, temperature, date, propeller, pulse, idea, pressure, reaction, oxygen, atmosphere, vacuum, impulse, mission, product, limitation.

Adjectives

mechanical, interesting, specific, nuclear, atomic, electric, atmospheric, principal, aerial, modern,  basic, chemical, planetary, thermal, dynamic

Verbs

to occupy, to combine, to utilize, to accelerate

Essential Vocabulary 1.      to propel 2.      propulsion 3.      source 4.      to produce 5.      device 6.      to require 7.      reliable 8.      reliability 9.      payload 10.     to permit = to allow 11.     to deal with 12.     to receive 13.     thrust 14.     specific fuel consumption 15.     to consume 16.     to burn 17.     to reduce 18.     reduction 19.     flexibility 20.     overhaul 21.     steam engine -      двигать -     движение -     источник -     производить -     прибор, агрегат -     требовать -     надежный -     надежность -     полезная нагрузка -     позволять -     касаться, иметь дело -     получать -     тяга -     удельный расход топлива -     потреблять, расходовать -     гореть -     уменьшать -     уменьшение -     гибкость -     капитальный ремонт -     паровой двигатель

Text: The Propulsion System

In order to propel an airplane through the air the force is required. This force must be rather intensive and is provided by the propulsion system. 

Every propulsion system consists of:

- the fuel which is the energy source from which the force is produced for the required time;

- the engine which is the mechanical device by which the energy of the fuel is transformed into the propulsive force. The word "engine" originally meant any “ingenious” device, and came from the Greek word "ingenious", clever.

Any aircraft propulsion system must meet certain requirements. First is low weight; second, the system must be reliable; third, the cost of the system must be sufficiently low

The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the airframe, the propulsion system and the payload. The payload consists of the crew, equipment and cargo. The weight of the propulsion system must be so divided between fuel and engine as to permit the airplane to fly a desirable distance without landing.

It must be stated that engines present one of the most interesting groups of problems considered in the engineering field. The problems dealt with are different. One of the main problems worked at by the designers is receiving the maximum possible power or thrust for minimum weight.

Another important problem dealt with is that of fuel. Both in the past and today the designers work at the problem of getting lower specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption is obtained by dividing the weight of the fuel burned per hour by the horse power developed.

Probably the reduction of fuel consumption can be solved when a nuclear reactor is used. If used as a source of power the nuclear process gives the most energy per unit of mass of any source known. It must be noted that controlled atomic energy has already produced electric power and marine propulsion power.

Another possible problem considered in any engine is its flexibility. Flexibility is the ability of the engine to run smoothly and perform properly at all speeds and through all variations of atmospheric conditions.

One more important problem worked at by the designers is the engine reliability. The engine is to have a long life, with maximum of time between overhaul periods. Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more than one engine. At present the preferred number of engines varies from one engine on small airplanes to eight on large military bombers. In transports the use of four engines predominates. Reliability is determined by the length of time the engine can run without major overhaul. The time varies with the use of the airplane.

It must be emphasized that in some cases the problem of balance is one of the main. Balance has several possible meanings but the principal factor is freedom from vibration.

Besides any engine must be started easily and carry its full load in a few minutes.

The necessity of carrying away excess heat developed by the engine has always been a problem of first importance too.

Nowadays there exist many types of engines used for various purposes. There are gasoline engines, diesel engines, gas turbines, steam engines, steam turbines, jet engines and rocket engines.

Each of them has certain advantages and disadvantages over other forms of power plants.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the adverbs. Name the adjectives from which the adverbs are formed.

Fully, originally, smoothly, considerably, recently, deeply, highly, heavily, principally, properly, definitely

Exercise 3. Translate the nouns formed from the verbs in the left column.

ignition                    heat                         consumption            inclusion                 operation                 performance            accomplishment       improvement           driver                              expression mixture rise requirement supply

to ignite - зажигать to heat - нагревать to consume - потреблять to include - включать to operate - действовать to   perform   - выполнять to accomplish  -  достигать, выполнять to improve - улучшать to drive - водить, управлять to express - выражать to  mix - смешивать to rise - поднимать  to require - требовать to supply -  снабжать

Exercise 4. Find the Russian equivalents.

1.     to propel 2.     source 3.     to produce 4.     device 5.     to require 6.     reliable 7.     reliability 8.     payload 9.     to receive 10. specific fuel consumption 11. to consume 12. to reduce 13. flexibility 14. overhaul

1.      гибкость 2.      двигать 3.      источник 4.      капитальный ремонт 5.      надежность 6.      надежный 7.      полезная нагрузка 8.      получать 9.      потреблять 10.  прибор, агрегат 11.  производить 12.  требовать 13.  удельный расход топлива 14.  уменьшать

Exercise 5. Match the columns.

A.

1.     to propel the airplane 2.     to consist of 3.     to transform into 4.     must meet 5.     can be divided among 6.     to receive the maximum possible power 7.     to get lower 8.     to increase the reliability by 9.     to produce

1.     using more than one engine 2.     through the air 3.     the propulsive force 4.     the fuel and the engine 5.     specific fuel consumption 6.     for minimum weight 7.     certain requirements 8.     electrical power 9.     the airframe, the propulsion system and the payload

B.

1.     propulsion 2.     energy 3.     propulsive 4.     engineering 5.     fuel 6.     specific 7.     nuclear 8.     atomic 9.     engine 10. overhaul

1.     consumption 2.     energy 3.     field 4.     force 5.     fuel consumption 6.  period 7.     process 8.     reliability 9.     source 10.   system xercise  Answer the Questions:

Exercise 6. Read the text “Air propulsion” and answer the questions:

1.     What does an aircraft propulsion system consists of?

2.     What are the aims of propulsion system?

3.     Why do cargo planes have turboprops?

4.     What airplanes do require very high excess thrust and why?

5.     What does thrust depend on?

Text: Air propulsion

An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.

An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.

Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount. That is why we find high bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and airliners.

Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft require very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust. Modern military aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.

Exercise 7. Fill in the missing words from the table and translate the text:

Third law, engine, Latin, working fluid, drive, gas turbines, machine, thrust, generated through, reaction, aircraft engine, mechanical power, forwards.

What is propulsion? The word is derived from two_____words: pro meaning before or____and pellere meaning to drive. Propulsion means to push forward or____ an object forward. A propulsion system is a____ that produces____to push an object forward. On airplanes, thrust is usually_______ some application of Newton's_____ of action and______. A gas, or________, is accelerated by the______, and the reaction to this acceleration produces a force on the engine.

An_______ is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates _______. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or_________.

Exercise 8. Match words with their definitions:

1. Thrust 2. Propulsion 3. Engine 4. Bypass 5 Drag 6. Propulsive nozzle

a) A machine that converts energy into mechanical force or motion b) A pipe or channel used to conduct gas or liquid around another pipe or a fixture. c) The force that propels an object in a given direction d) The aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft's motion through the air. e) A driving or propelling force. f) A device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe via an orifice. (the exhaust duct of the engine)

Unit III

Power Plant is the Heart of the Engine

Essential Vocabulary

1.              advantage 2.             disadvantage, 3.             air-breathing engine 4.             jet engine 5.             rocket engine 6.             ramjet engine 7.             pulsejet engine 8.             gas-turbine engine 9.             turbojet engine 10.         turboprop engine 11.         turbofan engine 12.         turboshaft engine 13.         to belong 14.         application   15.         to boost 16.         combustion chamber 17.         compressor (axial, . centrifugal 18.         to compare 19.         in comparison (with) 20.         complicated 21.         to cool 22.         to deliver    23.         to differ (from)  24.         to eject 25.         essential    26.         feature 27.         fuel 28.         fuel consumption 29.         inlet assembly 30.         load-carrying capacity   31.         nozzle (exhaust)   32.         propellant 33.         solid propellant 34.         liquid propellant 35.         to be similar (to) 36.         to utilize

-                                                         преимущество -                                                         недостаток воздушно-реактивный двигатель -                                                         реактивный двигатель -                                                         ракетный двигатель -                                                         прямоточный двигатель -                                                         пульсирующий двигатель -                                                         газотурбинный двигатель -                                                         турбореактивный двигатель -                                                         турбовинтовой двигатель -                                                         турбовентиляторный двигатель -                                                         турбовальный двигатель -                                                         принадлежать -                                                         применение -                                                         ускорять -                                                         камера сгорания компрессор (осевой, центробежный) -                                                         сравнивать -                                                         по сравнению (с) -                                                         сложный -                                                         охлаждать -                                                         доставлять -                                                         отличаться (от) -                                                         выбрасывать, выпускать -                                                         основной -                                                         черта, особенность -                                                         топливо -                                                         расход топлива -                                                         входное устройство грузоподъемность выхлопное сопло ракетное топливо твердое ракетное топливо жидкое ракетное топливо быть) похожим (на) использовать

Exercise 1. Read the following words. Pay attention to their pronunciation.

-         capacity, expand, comparison;

-         various, air, compare, care;

-         application, special, propulsion, machine;

-         mixture, feature, actually, approach;

-         majority, engine, jet, project;

-         liquid, equivalent, quality, quantity.

Exercise 2. Read and translate the following word – combinations.

A.

-                                      air-breathing engine, type of an air-breathing engine, the simplest type of  air-breathing engines;

-                                      wide application, wide application in aviation, wide application in military aviation;

-                                      fuel consumption, high fuel consumption, low fuel consumption,  turbojets’ high fuel consumption;

-                                      rocket engine, liquid-propellant rocket engine, modern liquid-propellant rocket engine, solid-propellant rocket engine.

-                                      complete supply,  fuel supply system, oil supply system, rocket  propulsion system;

-                                      gas turbine engine, pilotless military weapons, fuel - air mixture, auxiliary power plant, conventional power plant;

-                                      high speed military aircraft, low speed military aircraft,  large multi-engine

aircraft, high pressure gases.

B.

-                                      flight time, wing design, engine characteristics, helicopter engine, pressure rise, cooling system;

-                                      aircraft wing load, shaft rotation speed, ballistic rocket trajectory, aircraft steam engine, better engine performances, gas turbine installation, turbine inlet temperature;

-                                      solar ultra-violet radiation, high temperature and high-pressure gases, a nine-pressure compressor, high thrust-to-weight ratio, improved supersonic specific fuel consumption.

Text: Aircraft Engines

One of the most essential parts of any airplane is its power plant. The heart of the power plant is the engine. There must also be fuel supply and oil supply system, engine control system, cooling and starting systems.

Types of engines, their number and location on the airplane depend on the airplane performances, namely, its speed, altitude, range, load-carrying capacity and so on. Engines may be mounted on the wings, on the fuselage (forward or aft) or under the wings on pylons.

There are many types of aircraft engines in use: piston engines for low-speed aircraft and some types of jet engines.

Jet engines fall into two main classes: air-breathing engines and rocket engines. The engines of the first class utilize air from the atmosphere together with the combustion of fuel to produce the jet for propulsive purposes. Pay attention that the jet engine is not a modern development.

When used a jet engine produces high pressure, high temperature gas, which is ejected rearwards with great force named thrust. The thrust is the reaction of the flow or the jet of hot gases ejected from the rear. The jet is produced by the combustion of the fuel in the compressed air which is supplied by the atmospheric air that enters through the front opening.

For getting the required air into the combustion chamber a compressor is mounted in the front opening. The air is sucked in the compressor and then is used to burn the fuel.

Although a rocket engine is a jet engine it differs from other jet propulsion systems considered in that it does not use atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid stream. It carries the complete supply of working fluid or propellants (oxidizer and fuel) and can operate outside the earth’s atmosphere. Therefore when used in the vacuum the rocket engine can produce its thrust and so provides a possible means of propulsion for interplanetary vehicles. The rocket engine is suitable for operation over short periods.

There are two basic types of rocket engines: liquid-propellant and solid-propellant rocket engines.  Rockets find extensive use. They are used as boosters for missiles and research rockets, and as main power plants of guided missiles. A rocket propulsion system may also be used as a primary or an auxiliary power plant of an airplane.

The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the ramjet engine. It has no major rotating parts. The main components of the ramjet are: the diffuser, the combustion chamber and the jet nozzle. A ramjet is often the power plant for missiles and target vehicles. The ramjet can operate at high flight speeds and altitudes but is unsuitable as an aircraft power plant because it requires forward motion imparting to it before any thrust is produced, that is, it must be boosted to a high speed before the initial starting of the engine. Up to now the ramjet has not yet found wide application in aviation.

The pulsejet is more complicated than the ramjet; however, its flight velocity is considerably lower. The pulsejet is unsuitable as an aircraft power plant because it has high fuel consumption and is unable to equal the performance of the modern gas turbine engines. Possible application of the pulsejet is to propel pilotless military weapons. The main limitation of the pulsejet is the following one: it produces great noise during its operation.

Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan belong to the family of gas-turbine engines. Any type of the gas-turbine engines comprises the inlet assembly (diffuser), the compressor, the combustion chamber, the gas turbine and exhaust nozzle.

In a turbojet engine the diffuser takes the air and delivers it to the compressor. The mechanical compressor further compresses the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber, where the fuel-air mixture burns. The high temperature and high pressure gases enter the turbine. The turbine is connected with the compressor. The main function of the turbine is to provide power for the compressor. Then the combustion products expand in the exhaust nozzle and are ejected with high velocity producing thrust.

The turbojets are classified into 2 groups according to the kind of compressors which they use, that is, centrifugal and axial compressors. The majority of modern turbojets are equipped with axial compressors. At present the turbojet engine has become a conventional power plant for nearly all high-speed military aircraft.

The turboprop engine is very similar to the turbojet.  The difference is that it uses propeller to provide most of its thrust. It is heavier than a turbojet of equivalent size and power. However, its fuel consumption is lower in comparison with a turbojet. A variation of the turboprop engine is known as the turboshaft engine. It is often used for powering helicopters.

The turbofan engine combines the features of both the turbojet and turboprop engines. In the turbofan the propeller is replaced by an axial-flow fan. The turbofan is lighter than a turboprop; it has relatively low fuel consumption. The turbofan as well as the turboprop produces more thrust than the turbojet during take-off. Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multi-engine aircraft.

Exercise 3. Give the English equivalents.

1.    воздушно-реактивный двигатель 2.     реактивный двигатель 3.     прямоточный двигатель 4.     пульсирующий двигатель 5.     турбореактивный двигатель 6.     турбовинтовой двигатель 7.     поршневой двигатель 8.     турбовентиляторный двигатель 9.     газотурбинный двигатель 10. турбовальный двигатель 11. ракетный двигатель 12. ракетный двигатель на твердом топливе 13. ракетный двигатель на жидком топливе

1.         turboshaft engine 2.          turboprop engine 3.         turbojet engine 4.         turbofan engine 5.         solid propellant rocket engine 6.         rocket engine 7.         ramjet engine 8.         pulsejet  engine 9.         liquid propellant rocket engine 10.    jet engine  11.    air-breathing engine 12.    gas-turbine engine   13.    piston engine

Exercise 4.  Find  the Russian equivalents.

a.

1.     cooling system 2.     starting system 3.     fuel supply system 4.     location 5.     combustion of fuel 6.     thrust 7.     propellant 8.     fuel 9.     velocity 10. limitation 11. complicated

1.     горение топлива 2.     ограничение 3.     размещение 4.     ракетное топливо 5.     система запуска 6.     система охлаждения 7.     скорость 8.     сложный 9.     топливная система 10. топливо 11. тяга

b.

1.      to depend on 2.      to be mounted 3.      to fall into 4.      to utilize 5.      to eject 6.      to supply 7.      to differ 8.      to carry 9.      to produce 10.  to propel 11.  to power 12.  to comprise 13.  to provide 14.  to replace

1.          включать, содержать 2.          делиться 3.          зависеть от 4.          заменять 5.          извергать 6.          использовать 7.          обеспечивать 8.          оснащать(двигателем) 9.          переносить 10.      поставлять 11.      приводить в движение 12.      различать 13.      располагаться 14.      создавать

Exercise 5. Match the verbs with the objects.

1.     to depend on 2.     to be mounted 3.     to fall into 4.     to utilize 5.     to be ejected 6.     to differ from 7.     to carry 8.     to produce 9.     to propel 10. to power 11. to provide 12. to replace by 13. to deliver

1.     two main types 2.     thrust 3.     the airplane performance 4.     power for the compressor 5.     pilotless military weapons 6.     oxidizer and fuel 7.     other jet propulsion systems 8.     on the wings 9.     helicopters 10. from the rear 11. an axial-flow fan 12. air to the compressor 13. air from the atmosphere

Exercise 6. Ask about different types of engines according to their design, operation and application.  Answer the questions.

1.     What does … consist of (include, comprise)?

     … consists of   (include, comprise) … .

2.     What is the function of … ?

    Its function is to … .

3.     Where is … used (applied, utilized)?

    It is used  (applied, utilized) in … .

4.     What … is (are) widely used?

     … types are.

Exercise7. Complete the questions. Use the proper auxiliary verb.

1.     How many parts … the turboshaft engine include?

2.     What thrust … modern aircraft engines develop?

3.     Where … the combustion products expand?

4.     How much fuel … this engine consume?

5.     When … the first turbojet appear?

6.     Where … the air compressed?

7.     What compressor … modern jet engines equipped with?

8.     Where … the engines mounted?

9.     Why … the jet engines widely used?

Exercise 8. Read the text and write an annotation

Text: What Is a Gas Turbine Engine?

When you go to an airport and see the commercial jets there, you can't help but notice the huge engines that power them. Most commercial jets are powered by turbofan engines, and turbofans are one example of a general class of engines called gas turbine engines.

A gas turbine engine uses a pressurized gas to spin a turbine and compressor. Inside the engine, fuel is ignited to increase the gas’s temperature and pressure. This causes the gas to act on the turbine at a higher velocity. Gas turbine engines are used to power many aircraft and helicopters, boats and have recently been used in some battle tanks.

A turbine uses the energy of a flowing fluid to rotate a wheel. The concept of a turbine has existed for many years; windmills and water wheels are simple examples. Moving air passes over a windmill’s slanted blades, causing the wheel to spin. Turbines can also be used with steam, as in the case of many power plants. The turbine in a gas turbine engine, however, uses highly pressurized air to rotate.

Norwegian engineer Aegidius Elling was granted a patent for a gas turbine in 1884. His first turbine model that produced more power than it consumed was unveiled in 1903. Elling’s design locked a spinning air compressor to the turbine, a feature widely used today. He believed that if more heat-resistant materials could be found, the gas turbine engine could be used to power airplanes.

The main parts of a gas turbine engine are the compressor, the combustion area and the turbine. Air enters the compressor at normal pressure and then gets compressed. In the combustion area, some type of fuel is burned to increase the temperature and energy content of the air. The high-temperature, high-pressure gas is then forced to exit the engine, turning the turbine on its way out. A solid shaft connects the compressor and turbine - the rotation of the turbine is used to spin the compressor, which makes the engine as a whole more efficient.

The shaft that connects the compressor to the turbine may or may not be used to power additional devices. In a jet engine, the method of obtaining thrust is expelling the exhaust gas at a high velocity, which causes the aircraft to be pushed forward. In vehicles that are not powered by thrust, the spinning shaft can be used to do mechanical work.

A gas turbine engine has several advantages over the type of engine found in most automobiles. First of all, it has a better power-to-weight ratio. Gas turbine engines are also smaller than their automobile counterparts for a given amount of power. These reasons explain why many helicopters and airplanes use this type of engine.

Find and write down English equivalents from the text “What Is a Gas Turbine Engine?”

Соотношение мощности и веса, ветряные и водяные мельницы, приводить в действие дополнительные устройства, газ высокого давления, термостойкий материал, энергия вытекающей жидкости, вращать компрессор, запас энергии, на более высокой скорости, сплошной вал, испускать выхлопной газ, двойник.

True or false?

1.     A gas turbine engine uses a pressurized gas to rotate a wheel.

2.     The main parts of a gas turbine engine are the compressor, the combustion area and the turbine.

3.     Inside the engine, fuel is ignited to decrease the gas’s temperature and pressure.

4.     Aegidius Elling was granted a patent for a gas turbine in 1894.

5.     Air enters the compressor at high pressure and then gets compressed.

6.     An aircraft gas turbine engine has several advantages over automobile one.

Exercise 9. Translate the sentences with the adjectives in the comparative form. Remember! To compare things we use: much - намного; far - гораздо;

a little – немного.

1.     The more efficient the compressor, the higher the pressure generated for a given work input.

2.     The more efficiently the turbine uses the expanding gas, the greater the output of the work for a given pressure drop in the gas.

3.      Because the turbojet engine is a heat engine, the higher the temperature of combustion the greater is the expansion of the gases.

4.      Although the turbo-rocket engine is smaller and lighter than the turbo/ramjet, it has higher fuel consumption.

5.      The centrifugal flow compressor is usually more robust than the axial compressor and is also easier to develop and manufacture.

6.     The axial flow compressor consumes far more air than a centrifugal com­pressor of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much higher pressure ratios.

7.     The more the pressure ratio of a compressor is increased the more difficult it becomes to ensure that it will operate efficiently over the full speed range.

8.      Engines operating at higher turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient and have an improved power to weight ratio.

9.     Bypass engines have a better propulsive efficiency and thus can have a smaller turbine for a given thrust.

Text: Types of Turbines

There are many different kinds of turbines:

You have probably heard of a steam turbine. Most power plants use coal, natural gas, oil or a nuclear reactor to create steam. The steam runs through a huge and very carefully designed multi-stage turbine to spin an output shaft that drives the plant's generator.

Hydroelectric dams use water turbines in the same way to generate power. The turbines used in a hydroelectric plant look completely different from a steam turbine because water is so much denser (and slower moving) than steam, but it is the same principle.

Wind turbines, also known as wind mills, use the wind as their motive force. A wind turbine looks nothing like a steam turbine or a water turbine because wind is slow moving and very light, but again, the principle is the same.

A gas turbine is an extension of the same concept. In a gas turbine, a pressurized gas spins the turbine. In all modern gas turbine engines, the engine produces its own pressurized gas, and it does this by burning something like propane, natural gas, kerosene or jet fuel. The heat that comes from burning the fuel expands air, and the high-speed rush of this hot air spins the turbine.

Gas turbine engines are, theoretically, extremely simple. They have three parts:

1.        Compressor - Compresses the incoming air to high pressure.

2.        Combustion area - Burns the fuel and produces high-pressure, high-velocity gas.

3.        Turbine - Extracts the energy from the high-pressure, high-velocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber.

Types of Turbine Engines:

a Turbine engines are classified according to the type of compressors they use

a There are three types of compressors-centrifugal flow, axial flow, and centrifugal-axial flow

a Compression of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal flow engine by accelerating air outward perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the machine

a The axial-flow engine compresses air by a series of rotating and stationary airfoils moving the air parallel to the longitudinal axis

a The centrifugal-axial flow design uses both kinds of compressors to achieve the desired compression

a The path the air takes through the engine and how power is produced determines the type of engine

There are four types of aircraft turbine engines:

§  Turbojet

§  Turboprop

§  Turbofan

§  Turboshaft

Text: Engine Types

During the development of jet engine technology, several types of engines have been invented. Most of these types perform differently at varying airspeeds, which means that each type of engine has varying characteristics. The turbojet is the earliest jet engine and formed the base for the engines we use today. Besides the turbojet, turboprop engines were widely used and still powers many aircraft today. Nowadays, the turbofan engine is used most common by commercial aviation and makes use of a fan which drives air around bypass ducts. We'll discuss these types in more detail below.

a Answer the question:  Why was it necessary to invent  several types of engines?

Turbojet

The turbojet is the simplest jet engine in terms of construction. It is still widely used in military aviation since it allows aircraft to fly at speeds exceeding Mach 1. Although there are many types its basic design consists of an air intake, a gas generator unit and an exhaust nozzle. The gas generator in turn consists of the compressor, combustion chamber and turbine. In this design, the turbine drives only the compressor and various accessory systems; this leaves more energy to provide actual thrust than in other types. As said before, the turbojet is commonly used to provide power in order to fly supersonic where it fuel efficiency increases.

a Answer the question:  What is the main advantage of using the turbojet engine?

Turboprop

The turboprop is similar to the turbojet, except that the turbine drives a propeller, as well, in a two-spool configuration. Contrary to the turbojet, the turboprop accelerates a large amount of air to a relatively low exhaust velocity. Because of this, the turboprop reaches a very high fuel-efficiency at the expense of airspeed. Because of this, the turboprop engine performs best in the 250 to 450 mph speed range. Additionally, the turboprop generates more noise than the turbojet.

a Answer the question: What is the best speed range for turboprop and why?

Turbofan

Above 450 mph both the turbofan and turbojet is most widely used on commercial aircraft and business jets. The turbofan engine was designed in order to permit higher turbine temperatures without increasing gas velocity dramatically because this would decrease efficiency in subsonic flight. The turbofan makes use of a huge fan driven by the turbine commonly known as the N1. This fan directs air through bypass ducts, which lead air around the core engine to a separate exhaust nozzle. This method has proven to be very efficient at transonic airspeeds, making the turbofan ideal for modern commercial aircraft. The turbofan can be categorized by the ratio at which air moves through and around the core engine: Low bypass-ratio turbofans and high bypass-ratio turbofans. Almost every modern transport aircraft is powered by turbofan engines which contribute to high efficiency.

a Answer the question: How does the turbofan make use of a huge fan?

Turboshafts

The turboshaft is another form of gas-turbine engine that operates much like a turboprop system. It does not drive a propeller. Instead, it provides power for a helicopter rotor. The turboshaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter rotor is independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator. This permits the rotor speed to be kept constant even when the speed of the generator is varied to modulate the amount of power produced.

a Answer the question: Where the turboshaft is usually used?

Ramjets

The simplest jet engine – the ramjet – has no moving parts. The speed of the jet “rams” or forces air into the engine. It is essentially a turbojet in which rotating machinery has been omitted. Its application is restricted by the fact that its compression ratio depends wholly on forward speed. The ramjet develops no static thrust and very little thrust in general below the speed of sound. As a consequence, a ramjet vehicle requires some form of assisted takeoff, such as another aircraft. It has been used primarily in guided-missile systems. Space vehicles use this type of jet.

a Answer the question: How does the ramjet differs from the turbojet one?

Exercise 10. Translate the nouns or adjectives formed from the verbs in the left column.

burner                    heat                         conversion            acceleration                 operation                 diffuser           production      rise           rotary                              movable expansion requirement supply assembly addition

to burn - зажигать to heat - нагревать to convert - преобразовать to accelerate  - ускорять to operate - действовать to diffuse - распространять to produce  -  создавать  to rise - увеличивать, поднимать to rotate - вращать to move - двигать to expand - расширять to require - требовать to supply -  снабжать to assemble - собирать to add - добавлять

Exercise 11. Read the dialogue.  What new information have you got?

Instructor: Today we are going to discuss aviation jet engines, which are actually turbo-jet engines, having a compressor at the front to force the air in.

Peter: What drives the compressor?

Instructor: There's plenty of energy at the back, where the hot gases leave the combustion chamber. If you put a turbine there and connect it to the compressor by a shaft, that would solve the problem, wouldn’t’ it?

Nick: What's about the other types of jet engines?

Instructor: They're all variations on the turbo-jet principle. There's the turbo-prop, for example, where the turbines rotate both the compressor and an ordinary propeller.

Nick: What are the advantages of this type of engine?

Instructor: At very low flying speeds propellers are more efficient form of propulsion that jet engines. Pure jet engines are very efficient at high subsonic speeds, but at medium and low subsonic speeds their efficiency sharply decreases.

Peter: And this was the reason for development of by-pass engines.

Instructor: Right you are, this was the reason. But the development of by­pass engines was only the first step.

Nick: Are by-pass engines still used?

Instructor: They are, but in a modified form. In a by-pass engine only some of the air goes straight through; the remainder if passed through ducts, round the combustion chamber and turbine, but later re­joins the main stream at the rear.

Peter: And what was the second step? 

Instructor: The second step was development of fan engines. The first set of rotor blades of the axial compressor was enlarged to form a sort of multi-blade propeller, known as the fan.

Nick: Modern jet engines look so big and impressive. Is it because of their large diameter fans?

Instructor: The diameter of modem high by-pass-ratio jet engines is up to three meters, and they are pylon-mounted.

Exercise 12. Do the two-way translation and match the columns.

.

1.     От чего зависит количество двигателей и их расположение на самолетах? 2.     Где на самолете могут располагаться двигатели? 3.     На какие классы  подразделяются реактивные двигатели? 4.     Какие два основных типа ракетных двигателей существуют? 5.     Какой самый простой из воздушно-реактивных двигателей? 6.     Для чего предназначен пульсирующий двигатель? 7.     Какие двигатели относятся к газотурбинным двигателям? 8.     Из чего состоит газотурбинный двигатель? 9.     Как подразделяются турбореактивные двигатели? 10. На каких самолетах используются турбовентиляторные  двигатели?

1.         Jet engines fall into two main classes: air-breathing engines and rocket engines 2.         Possible application of the pulsejet is to propel pilotless military weapons. 3.         Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multi-engine aircraft 4.         Types of engines, their number and location on the airplane depend on the airplane performances 5.         Engines may be mounted on the wings, on the fuselage (forward or aft) or under the wings on pylons. 6.         There are two basic types of rocket engines: liquid-propellant and solid-propellant rocket engines. 7.         The simplest type of air-breathing engine is the ramjet engine. 8.         Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan belong to the family of gas-turbine engines. 9.         It comprises the inlet assembly (diffuser), the compressor, the combustion chamber, the gas turbine and exhaust nozzle. 10.     The turbojets are classified into 2 groups according to the kind of compressors which they use.

Exercise13 . Do your projects or reports about types of turbine engines using the information below.

Ø Turbojet

§  The turbojet engine consists of four sections: compressor, combustion chamber, turbine section, and exhaust. The compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to the combustion chamber

§  The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for combustion

§  The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the compressor, sustaining engine operation

§  The accelerated exhaust gases from the engine provide thrust

§  This is a basic application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture, producing power to self-sustain the engine operation, and exhaust for propulsion

§  Turbojet engines are limited in range and endurance

§  They are also slow to respond to throttle applications at slow compressor speeds

Ø Turboprop

§  A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a reduction gear.

§  The exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a shaft that drives the reduction gear assembly

§  Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine' operating rpm

§  Turboprop engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and reciprocating power plants

§  Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 and 400 mph and altitudes between 18,000 and 30,000'

§  They also perform well at the slow airspeeds required for takeoff and landing, and are fuel efficient

§  The minimum specific fuel consumption of the turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range of 25,000' to the tropopause.

Ø Turbofan

§  Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the turbojet and the turboprop.

§  Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion chamber.

§  The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression.

§  This provides turbojet-type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption.

§  The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually divided into two separate streams of air.

§  One stream passes through the engine core, while a second stream bypasses the engine core.

§  It is this bypass stream of air that is responsible for the term "bypass engine".

§  A turbofan's bypass ratio refers to the ratio of the mass airflow that passes through the fan divided by the mass airflow that passes through the engine core.

Ø Turboshaft

§  The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft

§  It delivers power to a shaft that drives something other than a propeller

§  The biggest difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust

§  Many helicopters use a turboshaft gas turbine engine

§  In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary power units on large aircraft

Unit IV

Main Parts of the Gas Turbine Engine and their functions

Essential Vocabulary

1.     working fluid 2.     to accelerate 3.     to increase 4.     velocity 5.     conversion 6.     efflux 7.     rotary air compressor 8.     air intake 9.     exhaust outlet 10. centrifugal  compressor 11. axial flow compressor 12. to drive (drove, driven) 13. to couple 14. shaft 15. to diffuse 16. frontal area 17. pressure ratio 18. to attain 19. to burn (burnt) 20. quantity 21. fuel burner 22. volume of air 23. to supply 24. to expand 25. smooth stream 26. to release 27. blade 28. (exhaust) nozzle 29. accessories 30. to extract  energy 31. to involve 32. blade tips 33. flow of gas 34. row 35. stationary nozzle guide vanes 36. moving blades 37. assembly 38. discharge gases

-         рабочее тело -         ускорять -         увеличивать -         (векторная) скорость -         преобразование -         истечение -         роторный компрессор -         воздухозаборник -         выхлопное устройство -         центробежный компрессор -         осевой компрессор -         приводить в движение -         соединять -         вал -         рассеивать, распространять -         лобовая площадь -         степень сжатия -         достигать -         жечь, сжигать -         количество -         топливная форсунка -         количество воздуха -         снабжать, подавать -         расширять -         ровный поток -         выпускать, освобождать -         лопатка -         (выхлопное) сопло -         вспомогательные агрегаты -         выделять энергию -         вовлекать, включать в себя -         законцовки лопасти -         поток воздуха -         ряд -         неподвижные направляющие лопатки соплового аппарата -         вращающиеся лопатки -         агрегат -         выхлопные газы

Text: Main Parts of the Gas Turbine Engine

The gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using air as the working fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the air passing through the engine has to be accelerated; this means that the velocity or kinetic energy of the air is increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased, followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic energy in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.

The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake, one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet.

There are two basic types of rotary air compressors: centrifugal flow and axial flow compressors. Both types are driven by the engine turbine and are coupled direct to the turbine shaft. The function of the compressor is to accelerate the air, to diffuse it and to produce the required pressure rise.

The axial compressor consumes far more air than a centrifugal compressor of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much higher pressure ratios. Since the airflow is an important factor in determining the amount of thrust, this means that the axial compressor engine will also give more thrust for the same frontal area.

The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel supplied through the fuel burners with extensive volumes of air supplied by the compressor. The heat is released in such a manner that the air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions required by the turbine. This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in pressure and with the maximum heat release.

The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories.  It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. High stresses are involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which the turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature between 850 and 1,700 deg. С and may reach a velocity of over 2,500 feet per second in parts of the turbine.

The turbine may consist of several stages. Each stage employs one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades.

The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to atmosphere at a velocity and in the required direction to provide the resultant thrust.

Because the turbojet engine is a heat engine, the higher the temperature of combustion the greater is the expansion of the gases. The combustion temperature, however, must not exceed a value that gives a turbine gas entry temperature suitable for the design and materials of the turbine assembly.

The use of air-cooled blades in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas temperature and a consequently higher thermal efficiency.

Learn these phrases.

1.        to accelerate the air 2.        to increase the velocity 3.        to drive  the compressor 4.        to couple to the turbine shaft 5.        to diffuse the air 6.        to reach a velocity 7.        to burn  large quantities of fuel 8.        to supply by the compressor 9.        to expand hot gases 10.    to release hot gases   11.    to extract  energy 12.    to provide thrust

-       ускорять воздух -       увеличить скорость -     приводить в движение компрессор -       соединять с валом турбины -       рассеивать воздух -       достигать скорости -     сжигать большое количество топлива -       доставлять компрессором -       расширять горячие газы -         освобождать (выделять) горячие газы -       выделять энергию -       создавать тягу

Exercise 1. Guess the meaning of the international words.

Nouns

Gas, turbine, acceleration, energy, compressor, diffuser, factor, temperature, material, compression, process, accessory, pressure, stress, operation, system, atmosphere, efficiency.

Adjectives

Kinetic, final, centrifugal,  frontal, minimum, maximum, stationary, resultant, thermal.

Exercise2. Find the Russian equivalents.

a.

1.     quantity 2.     fuel burner 3.     volume of air 4.     blade 5.     (exhaust) nozzle 6.     accessories 7.     blade tips 8.     moving blades 9.     discharge gases 10. assembly

1.     (выхлопное) сопло 2.     агрегат 3.     вращающиеся лопатки 4.     выхлопные газы 5.     законцовки лопасти 6.     количество 7.     количество воздуха 8.     лопатка 9.     принадлежности 10. топливная форсунка

b.

1.        working fluid 2.        velocity 3.        efflux 4.        rotary air compressor 5.        air intake 6.        exhaust outlet 7.        centrifugal  compressor 8.        axial flow compressor 9.        shaft 10.    pressure ratio

1.           центробежный компрессор 2.           степень сжатия 3.           роторный компрессор 4.           рабочее тело 5.           осевой компрессор 6.           истечение 7.           выхлопное устройство 8.           воздухозаборник 9.           вал 10.      (векторная) скорость

c.

1.        to accelerate 2.        to increase 3.        to drive   4.        to couple 5.        to diffuse 6.        to attain 7.        to burn  8.        to supply 9.        to expand 10.    to release 11.    to extract  energy 12.    to involve

1.          вовлекать, включать в себя 2.          выделять энергию 3.          выпускать, освобождать 4.          достигать 5.          жечь, сжигать 6.          приводить в движение 7.          распространять 8.          расширять 9.          снабжать, подавать 10.      соединять 11.      увеличивать 12.      ускорять

Exercise 3. Match the verbs with the objects.

1.       to accelerate 2.       to increase 3.       to drive   4.       to couple 5.       to diffuse 6.       to reach 7.       to burn  8.       to supply 9.       to expand 10.  to release 11.  to extract   12.  to provide

1.     to the turbine shaft 2.     thrust 3.     large quantities of fuel 4.     the kinetic energy 5.     hot gases 6.     gases 7.     energy 8.     the compressors 9.     by the compressor 10. the air flow 11. the air 12. velocity

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with the word-combinations in the right column.

1.      In order to propel an airplane through the air the force …. 2.        The … must be rather intensive and is provided by the propulsion system 3.       Every …consists of the fuel and the engine 4.      The engine is the … for transforming the energy of the fuel into the …. 5.      The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the …, the propulsion system and the …. 6.       The payload consists of the …, equipment and … . 7.      One of the main problems is receiving the … or thrust for minimum … . 8.      The reduction of fuel consumption can be solved when a … is used. 9.      The engine is to have a long life  with maximum of time between … . 10.  Reliability is determined by the length of time the engine can run without … .

1.         airframe 2.         cargo 3.         crew 4.         force 5.         is required 6.         major overhaul 7.         maximum possible power 8.         mechanical device 9.         nuclear reactor 10.    overhaul periods 11.    payload 12.    propulsion   system 13.    propulsive force 14.    weight

Text: The First Jet Engine - A Short History of Early Engines

Exercise 5. After reading this information about famous inventors and their inventions, try to find more and realize it in your own projects.

Sir Isaac Newton in the 18th century was the first to theorize that a rearward-channeled explosion could propel a machine forward at a great rate of speed. This theory was based on his third law of motion. As the hot air blasts backwards through the nozzle the plane moves forward.

Henri Giffard built an airship which was powered by the first aircraft engine, a three-horse power steam engine. It was very heavy, too heavy to fly.

In 1874, Felix de Temple, built a monoplane that flew just a short hop down a hill with the help of a coal fired steam engine.

Otto Daimler, in the late 1800's invented the first gasoline engine.

In 1894, American Hiram Maxim tried to power his triple biplane with two coal fired steam engines. It only flew for a few seconds.

The early steam engines were powered by heated coal and were generally much too heavy for flight.

American Samuel Langley made a model airplanes that were powered by steam engines. In 1896, he was successful in flying an unmanned airplane with a steam-powered engine, called the Aerodrome. It flew about 1 mile before it ran out of steam. He then tried to build a full sized plane, the Aerodrome A, with a gas powered engine. In 1903, it crashed immediately after being launched from a house boat.

In 1903, the Wright Brothers flew, The Flyer, with a 12 horse power gas powered engine.

From 1903, the year of the Wright Brothers first flight, to the late 1930s the gas powered reciprocating internal-combustion engine with a propeller was the sole means used to propel aircraft.

It was Frank Whittle, a British pilot, who designed the first turbo jet engine in 1930. The first Whittle engine successfully flew in April, 1937. This engine featured a multistage compressor, and a combustion chamber, a single stage turbine and a nozzle.

The first jet airplane to successfully use this type of engine was the German Heinkel He 178. It was the world's first turbojet powered flight. General Electric for the US Army Air Force built the first American jet plane. It was the XP-59A experimental aircraft.

Exercise 6. Do you know the history of the aircraft engine construction in Russia? Complete the dialogue.

a.                  …?

b.                  The aircraft engine construction began in Russia at the end of the 19^th century with Mozhaisky’s steam engine and the steam turbine of the Russian engineer Kuzminsky.

a.                   …?

b.                  As far as I know Kuzminsky’s engine consisted of  an air compressor, a combustion chamber and a multistage turbine.

a.                   … ?

b.                  Such Russian scientists as V.Tatarinov, A.Ufimtsev, S.Grizodubov, B.Lutsky worked at the development of aircraft piston engines.

a.                   … ?

b.                  The first piston engines had from 3 to 8 cylinders and produced 20-80 horse powers.

a.                   … ?

b.                  In 1924 the M-11 air - cooled engine designed by Shvetsov went into serial production. It had high reliability, small size and weight and low coast.

a.          … ?

b.         The U-2 (Po-2) training aircraft were powered by the M-11 engines for a long time.

a.                   … ?

b.  Such names as V.Klimov, A.Kuznetsov, A.Mikulin, A.Shvetsov, A.Lulka have become famous in our country as well as abroad.

a.        … ?

b.       They constructed powerful and reliable turbojet and turboprop engines.

a. … ?

b.  The PS-90 turbofan engine designed by P.Solovyev is the best aircraft engine in the world.

Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps with the word-combinations in the right column.

1.        The heart of the power plant is the…. 2.        Jet engines fall into…. 3.        The jet is produced by the… in the compressed air. 4.        Jet engines fall into two main classes: … engines and …engines. 5.        When used a… produces high pressure and high temperature gas. 6.        Rocket engines are used as… for missiles and research rockets, and as… of guided missiles. 7.        The rocket engine carries the complete supply of… or …(oxidizer and fuel). 8.        There are two basic types of rocket engines: … and …rocket engines. 9.        The … is more complicated than the ramjet. 10.       Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan engines belong to the family of …. . 11.       The majority of modern turbojets are equipped with … compressors. 12.       The turboprop engine uses propeller to provide most of its … .

1.        working fluid 2.        thrust 3.        solid propellant 4.        rocket 5.        pulsejet engine 6.        propellant 7.        main power plants 8.        liquid propellant 9.        jet engine 10.    two main classes 11.    gas turbine engines 12.    engine 13.    combustion of the fuel 14.    boosters 15.    axial 16.    air-breathing

Grammar Practice

That (those)

1. that (those)+ noun  – указательные местоимения тот, та, то (те)	That engine produced great noise during its operation. – Тот двигатель создавал …
2. that (those) + of + noun – слова – заместители существительного	The work of a new device is much more efficient than that of the old one. -…чем работа старого.
2.     that – союз: a. что b. то что  c. который (относительное местоимение)	He said that he would come back in 10 minutes.– Он сказал, что вернется ... That he is a good driver is a well-known fact. - То что он хороший… Windows is a software program that makes your PC easy to use. - … программа,  которая делает …

Exercise 8. Translate the sentences with that (those) which are used instead of nouns.

1.  The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke piston engine.

2.  The diameter of Mars is 4,200 miles about half that of the Earth.

3.  Hydrogen atoms are the lightest of those of any other elements.

4.  The elements of which the Sun and stars consist are almost the same as those of the Earth.

5.  The radio waves come back from an object in the same way as those of a light.

6.  Chemical properties of phosphorus are like those of nitrogen.

7.  The proton has a mass of 1,837 times that of the electron.

8.  The properties of the metal are very close to those of aluminium.

9.  Navigation by radio is much more efficient than that by any other means.

Exercise 9. Translate the sentences. Pay attention to the functions of that and  those.

1.                 Newton’s third law of motion states that “for every force acting on a body there is an opposite and equal reaction”.

2.                 Both engine cycles show that in each engine instance there is induction, compression, combustion and exhaust.

3.                 It must be noted that controlled atomic energy has already produced electric power and marine propulsion power.

4.                 An axial flow compressor consists of one or more rotor assemblies that carry blades of airfoil section.

5.                 It must be stated that engines present one of the most interesting groups of problems considered in the engineering field.

6.                 Although a rocket engine is a jet engine, it has one major difference in that it does not use atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid stream.

7.                 The power of the jet engine is much higher than that of the diesel engine.

8.                 The engine of the aircraft must be lighter than that of any ground vehicle.

9.                 The turbo-rocket engine has one major difference in that it carries its own oxygen to provide combustion.

10.             The flexibility of a diesel engine is higher than that of a gasoline engine.

11.             The speed of the car is less than that of a plane.

12.             The weight of diesel engines is heavier than that of gasoline engines.

13.             This vehicle requires longer overhaul than that vehicle.

14.             The speed of jet engines is much more than that of piston engines.

15.             The pressure in the jet engine is higher than that in the diesel engine.

16.             The payload of an aircraft is usually higher than that of a tank.

Exercise10. Replace the Russian words by the English ones.

1.     In order to propel an airplane through the air the требуется сила.

2.     This force must be rather intensive and is provided by the двигательной системой. 

3.      Every   propulsion   system consists of топлива и двигателя.

4.     The engine is the механический агрегат by which the energy of the fuel is transformed into движущую силу.

5.      Any aircraft propulsion system must meet certain требованиям: low weight, высокой надежностью, low cost.

6.      The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the airframe, двигательной системой и полезной нагрузкой.

7.      One of the main problems is получение the maximum possible power or тяги for minimum весе.

8.     Both in the past and today the desig­ners work at the problem of getting более низкого удельного расхода топлива.

9.     Всережимность is the ability of the engine плавно работать and perform properly at всех скоростях and through all variations of atmo­spheric conditions.

10.    The engine is to have a long life, with maximum of time between периодами капитального ремонта.

11.   Overall propulsion system reliability увеличивается by using more than one engine.

12.    Reliability is determined by the length of time the engine can run без капитального ремонта.

13.    Any engine must легко запускаться and carry its full load in a few minutes.

Exercise 11.  True or false?

1.     In order to propel an airplane through the air the force is not required.

2.     The force must be rather intensive and is provided by the propulsion system.

3.      Every aircraft consists of the fuel and the engine.

4.     The engine is the chemical device for transforming the energy of the fuel into the propulsive force.

5.     The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the wing and the propulsion system. 

6.      The payload consists of the crew, equipment and cargo.

7.     One of the main problems is receiving the minimum possible power   for maximum weight.

8.     The reduction of fuel consumption can be solved when a nuclear reactor is used.

9.     The engine is to have a long life with minimum of time between overhaul periods.

10.             Reliability is determined by the length of time the engine can run without major overhaul.

Exercise 12. Answer the questions.

1.     What is required to propel an airplane through the air?

2.     What does the propulsion system consist of?

3.     What is the fuel?

4.     What is the engine?

5.     What requirements must the propulsion system meet?

6.     How is the total weight of an airplane divided?

7.     What are the main problems dealt with the engine?

8.     What is the specific fuel consumption?

9.     How can one increase the reliability of the propulsion system?

10. What types of engines are there nowadays?

Exercise 13. Speak about the propulsion system using the key-words.

1. To propel an aircraft

the force is required

the force is provided by

2. The propulsion system consists of …

the fuel is …

the engine is …

3. The propulsion system must meet the requirements:

low weight

high reliability

low cost

4. The total weight of an airplane can be divided among…

The payload consists of…

The weight of the propulsion system can be divided between …

5. There are many problems considered in the engineering field:

receiving the maximum possible power for …

getting lower specific fuel consumption

flexibility of the engine

engine reliability

the problem of balance

carrying away excess heat

6.            There exist many types of engines. They are …

Exercise 14. Make questions to the underlined words.

1.      In order to propel an airplane through the air the force is required.

2.      This force is provided by the propulsion system. 

3.      The fuel is the energy source.

4.      The total weight of the airplane is divided among the airframe, the propulsion system and the payload.

5.      Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more than one engine.

Exercise 15. Do the two-way translation.

1.     Чем создается сила для движения  самолета в воздухе? 2.     Из чего состоит двигательная система? 3.     Что такое двигатель? 4.     Каким требованиям должна отвечать двигательная система самолета? 5.     Как распределяется полный вес самолета? 6.     Как увеличить надежность двигательной системы? 7.     Какие типы двигателей существуют?

1.       The force is provided by the propulsion system to move an airplane through the air. 2.       The propulsion system consists of the fuel and the engine. 3.       The engine is the mechanical device by which the energy of the fuel is transformed into the propulsive force. 4.       The propulsion system must meet certain requirements. It must have low weight, high reliability and low cost. 5.       The total weight of an airplane can be divided among the airframe, the propulsion system and the payload. 6.      Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more than one engine.   7.     There are gasoline engines, diesel engines, gas turbines, steam engi­nes, steam turbines, jet engines and rocket engines.

Exercise 16. Ask questions.

1.             …?

The power plant is a device that produces mechanical power or energy.

2.             …?

Every   propulsion   system consists of the fuel which is the energy  source and the engine which is the mechanical device. 

3.             …?

The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the airframe, the propulsion system and the payload.

4. ..?

The payload consists of the crew, equipment and cargo.

5…?

The designers work at the problem of getting lower specific fuel consumption.

6…?

Specific fuel consumption is obtained by dividing the weight of the fuel burned per hour by the horse power developed.

7…?

The engine must run smoothly and operate at all speeds and in all weather conditions.

8…?

Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more than one engine.

9…?

There are many types of engines used today for different purposes.

Texts For Reading And Writing Practice

Dialogue 1.

Instructor: Historically, there are three types of compressors, used in aviation jet engines. These are centrifugal compressors, axial flow compressors and hybrid compressors. Each of these types has its own advantages and disadvantages.  

Nick: Up to now we have discussed only axial flow compressors. Does it mean that they are the most efficient type?

Instructor: Yes, it does. Axial flow compressors are the most efficient and the most complex type of compressors, and they are used in most jet engines. On the other hand, centrifugal compressors are very simple and robust, very easy to manufacture, but, unfortunately, their efficiency is low.

Nick: Are the axial compressors mounted on the turbine shaft?

Instructor: Yes. The axial compressors force the air straight backwards by means of a series of multi-blade fans mounted one behind the other.

Axial Compressor

Vocabulary:

1.     duct 2.     to upset 3.     to stall 4.     coughing 5.     short-like sound 6.     to surge 7.     bangs 8.     shrouding

-     канал -     нарушать -     работать в режиме срыва потока -     звуки, похожие на кашель -     звуки, похожие на выстрел -     работать в режиме помпажа -     взрывоподобные звуки -     бандажирование законцовок лопаток

An axial compressor is a mechanical device for causing a pressure rise in the air delivered to the combustion chamber. There is a constant relationship between the volume, the temperature and the pressure of the air as it passes through the axial compressor. The temperature of the air at any point of the duct is the product of the pressure and the volume of that air.

When the volume of the air is being reduced in an axial compressor, there is a rise in both pressure and temperature. The more efficient is the design of the compressor, the higher will be the rise in pressure. The efficiency of an axial-flow compressor depends primarily upon the design of its rotor and stator blades.

Rotor blades have airfoil cross-sections and are made of aluminum alloy, steel or titanium. They can operate with maximum efficiency only within a limited range of operating conditions. Outside this range the smooth flow of air in the compressor is usually upset by unwanted turbulence. When one stage of the compressor is upset by turbulence, it is said that the compressor stalls. The stalling compressor usually develops severe vibrations or coughing. Sometimes it may even produce shot-like sounds. When all stages of the compressor are upset by turbulence, it is said that the compressor surges. The surging compressor produces powerful bangs, the temperature of the exhaust gases rapidly rises and the engine may be partially or wholly damaged. Stator blades may be attached directly to the casing of the compressor, with connecting shrouding at the tips to give them greater stability.

Dialogue 2.

Instructor: This time we are going to discuss the central part of the jet engine - its combustion chamber. This is the place where fuel is mixed with the air from the compressor and ignited.

Peter: It must be quite complex!

Instructor: On the contrary, you'll be surprised by its simplicity! Just imagine two tubes, one inside the other. The inside one, called the flame tube, is fitted at the front with a perforated flare, located behind an entry snout. In the center of the flare there are a number of swirl vanes.

Nick: Up to now, it's quite simple.

Instructor: The air comes from the compressor at high velocity of one or two hundred meters per second...

Peter. It can surely blow out the flame.

Instructor: Very definitely it can. Besides, there is more available air than is needed for combustion. And this is the reason why there are two tubes: only the quantity of air needed for combustion goes into the inner tube, the rest passes outside it.

Nick: The flare clearly helps to decrease the velocity of the air entering the flame tube.

Peter: And also to raise its temperature and pressure.

Instructor: You're both right!

Peter: I don't see why the compressor should be made to deliver so much air when only part of it is needed for combustion.

Instructor: The temperature of the gases leaving the combustion zone may be as high as 2000 degrees Centigrade. This is too hot to feed into the turbine. About half of the excess air is needed to dilute and cool these exhaust gases.

The Combustion Chamber

Vocabulary:

1.     multiple combustion chamber layout 2.     layout 3.     flame tube 4.     tubo-annular 5.     casing

-         трубчатая конструкция камеры сгорания -         схема, расположение -         жаровая труба -         трубчато – кольцевая -         корпус, кожух

Combustion chambers are mechanical devices for burning air-fuel mixture. They may be installed in the engine in a number of different ways. The multiple combustion chamber layout is used with engines having centrifugal compressors. In this layout a number of flame tubes are disposed radially round the engine. Annular and tubo-annular designs of combustion chambers are more often used presently.

The flame tube of annular combustion chambers is in the form of a double ring which in turn is fitted into an annular casing of two more rings. Tubo-annular combustion chambers have flame tubes grouped round the engine, as in the multiple layout, but instead of each having a separate outer casing, they are all disposed in a common annular cas­ing, shaped like two broad rings, one inside the other.

Tubo-annular chambers are easier to manufacture and overhaul, while annular chambers, besides possessing these advantages, are also more compact. Annular chambers are more fuel-efficient and reduce many of the problems of air pollution. All combustion chambers must be capable to withstand very high temperatures, rapid changes of temperature and corrosive effects produced by the products of combustion.

Dialogue 3.

Instructor: The basic principles of gas turbine design are easy to understand, but their practical application is very complicated, to say the least. First, what does the turbine do?

Peter:  It drives the compressor, of course.

Instructor: Anything else?

Nick: I suppose it drives various accessories, too. Fuel pumps, electric generators, and things like that.

Peter: In turbo-prop aircraft it drives the propeller shaft, in helicopters it drives the rotor shaft, both through reduction gears.

Instructor: You're both well in the picture! I am very impressed!  

Now let's see how a turbine operates. The hot exhaust gases from the combustion chamber first pass fixed nozzle guide vanes.

Peter: They look like stator vanes in a compressor, don't they?

Instructor: Yes, in a way. But actually they are quite different. Firstly, they have complex cooling ducts inside. Secondly, they are monocrystallic that is produced from a piece of metal, grown as a single crystal.

Nick: What substance is used as a cooling agent?

Instructor: As a cooling agent is used common air, bled from a compressor stage. Immediately behind the fixed nozzle guide vanes are the rotating blades of the turbine. These are the most critical items of the whole jet engine. In modern jet engines they have to withstand temperatures of up to 1400 degrees Centigrade and strains of up to three or four tons.

Peter: I think that design and manufacture of such blades must be quite a problem!

Instructor: This is the field of what is known as very high technologies and top secret know-how. 

Nick: How many turbines may modern high bypass ratio engines have?

Instructor: Modern high bypass ratio jet engines may have three gas turbines, and three concentric shafts, running independently. Such engines are very fuel efficient and also extremely quiet.

The Gas Turbine

Vocabulary:

1.     driving torque 2.     triple-spool system 3.     power-to-weight ratio 4.     bearing

-         вращающийся момент -         трехвальная система -         удельная мощность -         подшипник

The gas turbine provides the power to drive the compressor and accessories. It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the combustion chamber and expanding them to lower pressure and temperature. High stresses are involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds up to 500 meters per second. The continuous flow of gas, to which the turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature of up to 1400°C and may reach a velocity up to 700 meters per second in some parts of the turbine.

To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several stages, each employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades. The number of stages depends on whether the engine has one shaft or two and also on the relation between the power required from the gas flow, the rotational speed at which it must be produced and the diameter of turbine permitted.

The number of shafts varies with the type of engine. High compression ratio engines usually have two shafts driving high and low pressure compressors. On high bypass ratio fan engines another turbine is interposed between the high and low pressure turbines, thus forming a triple-spool system.

The bypass engine enables a smaller turbine to be used than in a pure jet engine for a given thrust output and it operates at a higher gas inlet temperature, thereby obtaining improved thermal efficiency and power-to-weight ratio.

The balancing of a turbine is an extremely important operation in its manufacture and maintenance. In view of the high rotational speeds and the mass of materials, any unbalance could seriously affect the rotating assembly bearings and engine operation. Balancing is effected on a special balancing machine and is conducted after each maintenance operation connected with replacements of blades, discs and bearings.

The Exhaust System

Vocabulary:

1.     to impede 2.     afterburning 3.     eyelids 4.     nozzle aperture 5.     pneumatic rams 6.     divergent passage

-       препятствовать -       дожиг топлива -       створки, заслонки -       отверстие сопла -       пневматические толкатели -       расширяющийся канал

The exhaust system of a jet engine passes the turbine discharge gases to atmosphere at a velocity, and in the required direction to provide the resultant thrust. Great care must be taken in the design of the exhaust system at the rear of the engine. If the flow of exhaust gases is impeded by too small an exit, temperatures and pressures will be built up inside the engine, while too large an exit will make them fall, and create a loss of thrust.

When afterburning is in operation, the area of the exhaust nozzle can be increased by opening two eyelids that partially obstruct the nozzle aperture when closed. The pilot actuates these eyelids by pneumatic rams which in turn are linked to the fuel supply system. As they open the supply of fuel is increased.

Bypass engines can benefit spectacularly from the use of afterburning. Thrust can be increased by 70% or more for short periods of time. This enables the airplanes to reach an economical cruising height far more quickly than planes not fitted with afterburners.

As a rule it can be said that forward thrust is created wherever there are divergent passages which convert velocity into pressure energy. Following the air as it passes through the engine, we see that considerable thrust is developed in the compressor because of the rise in pressure there.

Exercise 1. Group the words according to the theme:

a)     engine components

b)    engine operation

c)     classification of the jet engines

To have some limitations, combustion chamber, to eject with high velocity, in comparison with, axial compressor, to belong to the family of gas - turbine engines, discharge nozzle, in contrast to, to deliver the air, the simplest type of air-breathing engines, fuel-air mixture, inlet assembly, to expand in the exhaust nozzle, to differ from other engines, liquid propellant rocket engines, to utilize air from the atmosphere, to combine features of some engines, to produce high temperature gases, to find wide application in aviation.

Exercise 2. Replace  the Russian words and word-combinations by the  English ones.

1.    The gas turbine engine is essentially a тепловой двигатель using air as a рабочего тела to provide thrust.

2.    Газотурбинный двигатель  consists of a rotary air compressor with an воздухозаборником, one or more камер сгорания, a turbine, and an выхлопного устройства.

3.       There are two basic types of роторных компрессора: centrifugal flow and осевой compressors. 

4.       Both types приводятся в движение by the engine turbine and are coupled direct to the валу турбины

5.        The function of the compressor is ускорить the air, распространить  it and to produce the required повышение давления.

6.    The axial flow compressor расходует far more air than a центробежный компрессор of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much higher степень повышения давления.

7.    Камера сгорания has the diffi­cult task of burning большого количества топлива with огромным количеством воздуха supplied by the compressor.

8.    The turbine has the task of создание мощности to drive the compressor and accessories.

9.    The turbine may consist of нескольких ступеней.

10.  Each stage employs one row of неподвижных направляющих лопаток соплового аппарата and one row of вращающихся лопаток.

11.  The exhaust system passes the выхлопные газы турбины to the atmosphere at a velocity and in the required direction чтобы создать тягу.

12.        The use of лопаток с воздушным охлаждением in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.

Exercise 3. Group the words according to the following topics:

a)    a compressor

b)    a combustion chamber

c)     a turbine

d)    an exhaust nozzle

air intake, axial flow,  blade tips, burners, centrifugal flow, expansion of air, frontal area, discharge gas, moving blades, resultant thrust,  rotary, to rotate, stage, to accelerate, to burn, to couple,  to diffuse, to drive  the compressor, to provide power.

Exercise 4. Write the English equivalents:

Тепловой двигатель, рабочая жидкость,  роторный компрессор, воздухозаборник, выхлопное устройство, центробежный компрессор, осевой компрессор, приводятся в движение турбиной,  присоединяются к валу турбины, создавать необходимый рост давления, расходует гораздо больше воздуха, сжигание большого количества топлива, топливные форсунки, минимальная потеря давления, максимальное выделение тепла, лопасти турбины, могут вращаться на скорости, может состоять из нескольких ступеней, проводит выхлопные газы турбины.

Exercise 5. Translate the text without using the dictionary and write  the annotation.

The Aeroengine

The aeroengine should meet the following requirements:

-     it must be easily started on the ground and in the flight;

-     operate stably within the wide range of operating modes on the ground and in air providing at the same time the power (thrust) required;

-     be highly reliable;

-     have a long service life.

On the other hand it should be light, efficient, small-sized and easily controlled and maintained.

An airplane performance greatly depends on the ratio of the thrust of its engines to the airplane weight. On the basis of these data it is possible to estimate how the engine power (thrust) and specific fuel consumption change with the flight speed and altitude variations.

Weight of the aeroengine is one of the most important properties. Specific weight of an engine is its weight per unit of power provided. The less the specific weight the lighter the engine.

Low engine weight is important for obtaining the required airplane take-off and climb performances. Light engines are needed for the installation on vertical take-off and landing aircraft.

Fuel economy is one of its properties characterized be the engine efficiency and specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption of an engine is the amount of fuel consumed by the engine per unit of time with relation to init of power produced by it.

The greater the engine efficiency is, and correspondingly, the less the specific fuel consumption is the better the engine fuel economy is.

Exercise 6.  Translate the text  and write down the main fuel problems in aviation.

Some Fuel Problems

The new era of fast high-flying jets brought with it many prob­lems. The high fuel consumption is problem number one.

The jets suffer from high fuel consumption. A 10,000-pound thrust engine consumes a lot of fuel. For example, the largest jets have fuel tanks in the wings capable of storing in excess of 21,000 gallons of fuel. Twenty-one thousand gallons is the equivalent capacity of five or six of the refueling trucks one sees normally around an airport.

There were experts who said that a jet air-liner could never come into general use because it was uneconomical.

But note the fuel consumption was exceptionally high only relative to duration in the air, not to distance covered. High fuel consumption is a relative matter; it can be low relative to kilometers covered; yet high relative to time in the air. They cover long distances in short period of time.

Still, fuel makes up a big part of the total gross weight of the air­plane, while power-to-weight ratio or specific weight has always been a critical factor in prime movers for aircraft.

Besides, there exists a problem of the fuel choice. Power for aerial propulsion is known to be produced by using the oxygen of atmosphe­ric air as a chemical reactant in combustion with some fuel, e.g. a hyd­rocarbon such as gasoline or kerosene. Regular jet engines can defini­tely be used for speeds up to two or three times that of sound. But at two thousand mph hydrocarbon fuel will begin to boil. Also at altitu­des of 100,000 feet or more, there is very "little" air for the jet to "swallow".

There is a great future in nuclear energy. However, there are many problems of utilizing atomic energy. It is well-known fact that the radiation from any atomic pile is dangerous, and the power plant must be properly shielded. The shielding for the plane will weigh about the same as the engine, fuel load and tanks of our present big planes. Eventually the research performed in this field will give satisfactory solutions.

There exists one more problem. This is the problem of fueling and refueling the jet planes. Jet airplanes have been designed so that they are capable of being fueled at the rate of one to two thousand gallons per minute from four hoses through underwing pressure-fueling points. At some airports there are installed large underground hydrant-type fueling systems. With such an installation fuel is pumped underground from a remotely located fuel-tank system to the airplane location and from there directly into the airplane fuel tanks. The problem of re­fueling the plane is solved by plane-to-plane or in-the-air refueling.

There is still a lot to be done in the field of jets and rockets with improved fuels and less complex engines. Scientists seem to be able to handle such problems.

Exercise 7. Read and write an annotation.

Fuel System

Most modern aircraft are equipped with 2 or more fuel tanks (or cells). In high wing aircraft, the cells are housed in the wings. Since they are higher than the engine, the fuel flows down to the engine by the force of gravity.

On low wing aircraft fuel pumps are required. To initially get fuel to the engine for starting, an electrical “boost pump” is turned on to pump fuel to the engine. After the engine is started, a mechanical fuel pump driven by the engine feeds fuel to the engine. The electric boost pump can now be turned off.

Each fuel tank is equipped with a drain valve located at the lowest point in the tank. This drain allows the pilot during preflight walk-around to check for and drain off any water which may have accumulated in the fuel tank. There is usually another drain located at the lowest part of the fuel piping system. This valve must also be drained during pre-flight to eliminate any water which may have accumulated in the fuel lines. Associated with this drain is a fuel strainer which filters out foreign matter which may be in the fuel system.

A vent line allows air to enter the tank as fuel is used. During hot weather, fuel may expand and overflow through the vent when tanks are full.

A fuel selector valve located inside the cockpit allows the pilot to select which tank(s) are to be in use during flight. Most small aircraft operate with the selector set on Both, such that both the left and right fuel tanks are simultaneous feeding fuel to the engine. The pilot may set the selector on Left or Right tank as a means of equalizing the loading of the aircraft. Usually, the selector should be set to both for take-off and landing. Pilots of low wing aircraft should exercise caution in their fuel management if tank selection is other than both. Running a tank dry can cause the engine to quit and vapor lock to occur in the fuel lines. It may be impossible to restart the engine under these conditions.

There is a fuel gauge in the cockpit for each fuel tank. The lower 1/4 of the fuel gauge indication is marked with a red line as a caution to the pilot of a low fuel condition. The pilot should never rely on the fuel gauge as the sole measure of fuel remaining. The gauges on aircraft are subject to a variety of indicator errors. The pilot should therefore double check the fuel remaining based on the power setting of the engine in flight and time in flight.

Inside the cockpit a fuel mixture control and a fuel primer pump are located on the instrument panel. The mixture control is used to adjust the air/fuel mixture for the altitude being flown. It allows the pilot to adjust the fuel/air ratio entering the engine. As altitude is gained, the intake air becomes less dense. Less fuel must be fed through the carburetor to permit the fuel/air mixture to remain correct proportion. If leaning is not accomplished by the pilot, a rich mixture (too much fuel) results it. This is not only wasteful of fuel, but can result in fouled spark plugs due to carbon and soot buildup on the spark plugs. A rough running engine results. An additional gauge called an Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge can be installed in the aircraft as an aid in achieving the proper “leaning” of the engine.

The fuel primer is a plunger that can be used in cold weather to inject fuel directly into the carburetor as an assist in starting the engine in cold conditions.

Exercise 8. Read and write an annotation.

Advantages of the Diesel for Aviation

The mechanical advantages which the Diesel aircraft engine has over the gasoline aircraft engine include elimination of electrical ignition trouble and interference with radio communication, freedom from carburetor trouble at sea-level and at various altitudes, lower exhaust gas temperature permitting the use of an exhaust-driven supercharger, and better installation in the airplane. These advantages formerly were offset by the greater specific weight of the Diesel but now that this has been reduced to approximately that of the gasoline engine, full advantage can be taken of them for aviation.

ADVANTAGES FOR CIVIL AVIATION

The advantages of the Diesel for civil aviation are so overwhelming that when suitable Diesels become available it will not be long before they are used extensively in privately-owned airplanes as well as in large transport planes for passengers and freight. For the private flier there will be the advantage of reduced fire hazard which will safeguard him in forced landings and make the sport even more popular than it is today. The advantages of reduced fuel load and increased payload or flight range also will be noticeable despite the relatively small size of such airplanes.  Reduction in fuel operating cost will enable the private flier to spend considerably more hours in the air than he can afford to do at present.

SPECIALIZED DIESEL ADVANTAGES

Owners of airplanes used for special purposes such as exploration in tropical or arctic regions far from ordinary lines of communication will find the Diesel particularly advantageous. In addition to the outstanding advantage of reduced fire hazard the difficulty of transporting fuel to remote out-of-the-way places will be reduced due to the smaller amount of fuel required. The fact that fuel oil does not evaporate at atmospheric temperatures will make fuel storage easier and the ability of the Diesel to run on kerosene in an emergency is an asset which should not be overlooked. Absence of electrical interference from the ignition system of the Diesel is another advantage for expeditions of this kind as it will help to improve radio communication.

COMMERCIAL ADVANTAGES

Airline companies will find the Diesel advantageous for many reasons when reliable engines of this type are available for everyday use. The safety factor of their operations will be increased due to the elimination of fire hazard and the psychological effect on both passengers and crew will be most pronounced. Sleeper planes will become more popular and refueling will not present any hazards. Reduction of fuel loads will enable greater payloads to be carried or schedules to be speeded up by eliminating refueling stops. Fuel operating costs will be cut in half and even insurance rates will be reduced.

For transatlantic airlines the Diesel will prove to be ideal as it will enable larger payloads of passengers and mail to be carried non-stop over considerably greater distances than is now possible with gasoline - engined planes. No longer will intermediate stops have to be made between the United States and Europe which waste time and subject American property to interference by another nation. Passengers will not be forced to wait indefinitely due to the inability of airliners to carry them as well as the mail. Special Diesel - engined mailplanes will be catapulted to ensure that the mail leaves on time regardless of weather conditions.

Greater business will result from the use of Diesel-engined airplanes which will save time for the passengers and ensure greater profits for the airlines. All of these highly desirable changes will be brought about by the use of the economical Diesel for aviation in the future after World War II.

Exercise 9. Replace  the Russian words and word-combinations by the  English ones.

1.              One of the most essential parts of any airplane is its силовая установка.

2.               There must also be топливно - масляная система, engine control system, cooling system and система запуска

3.               Types of engines, their количество and location on the airplane depend on the ТТХ самолета.

4.               Engines may be mounted on the wings, on the fuselage (forward or aft) or под крыльями on pylons.

5.              There are many types of aircraft engines in use: piston engines for low-speed aircraft and some types of реактивных двигателей

6.              Jet engines fall into two main classes: воздушно-реактивные engines and ракетные engines.

7.              The engines of the first class utilize air from the atmosphere together with the горением топлива.

8.              The rocket engine carries the полный запас of working fluid or ракетного топлива (oxidizer and fuel) and can operate outside the earth’s atmosphere.

9.              There are two basic types of rocket engines: с жидким и твердым топливом rocket engines.

10.         The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the прямоточный двигатель.

11.         The пульсирующий двигатель is more complicated than the ramjet.

12.         Turbojet, турбовинтовые and turbofan belong to the family of газотурбинных двигателей.

13.         The turbine соединяется with the compressor.

14.         The main function of the turbine is создавать мощность for the compressor.

15.         The majority of modern turbojets are equipped with осевыми компрессорами.

16.         The turboprop engine uses propeller чтобы создать most of its тяги.

17.         In the turbofan the propeller is replaced by an осевым вентилятором.

18.         The turbofan engine combines the особенности of both the turbojet and turboprop engines.

Exercise 10.  True or false? Express your agreement or disagreement  using “You are right”, “I’m of the same opinion”, “I can’t agree with you”.

1.            A rocket engine is not a jet engine; it uses atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid stream.

2.            A rocket engine can not operate outside the earth’s atmosphere.

3.            There are two basic types of rocket engines: liquid-propellant and solid-propellant rocket engines.

4.            A rocket propulsion system may also be used as a primary power plant of an airplane.

5.            The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the pulsejet engine.

6.            The ramjet has found wide application in aviation.

7.            The ramjet is more complicated than the pulsejet.

8.            The pulsejet is suitable as an aircraft power plant because it has high fuel consumption.

9.            Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan belong to the family of gas-turbine engines.

10.         In a turbojet engine the diffuser takes the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber

11.         The main function of the turbine is to provide power for the combustion chamber.

12.         There are two types of compressors: centrifugal and axial compressors.

13.         The majority of modern turbojets are equipped with centrifugal compressors.

14.         The turboprop engine differs considerably from the turbojet.

15.         The turboprop is lighter than a turbojet of equivalent size and power.

16.         A variation of the turboprop engine is known as the turboshaft engine often used for powering guided missiles. 

17.         It is well known that there are liquid and solid-propellant rocket engines.

18.         The turbofan engine doesn’t combine the features of both the turbojet and turboprop engines.

19.          Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multi-engine aircraft.

Exercise 11. Answer the questions.

1.   What can you say about the number and location of engines in the aircraft?

2.   How are jet engines classified?

3.   What is the difference between rocket and air-breathing engines?

4.   What are two types of rocket engines?

5.   What is the simplest type of air-breathing engines?

6.   Is the pulsejet engine more complicated that the ramjet one?

7.   What engines belong to the family of gas-turbine engines?

8.   How are turbojets divided?

9.   What are essential components of a turbojet engine?

10.     What are the advantages of a turbofan engine?

Exercise 12. The most important types of engines are turbojet and turboprop engines. Let’s compare them according to the following parameters. (Find the additional information to do this task properly)

	Turbojet   engines	Turboprop engines
Thrust is produced by	the jet of hot gases ejected from the rear	the propellers
Weight
Size
Speed
Fuel consumption
Use in airplanes

1.      What engine is heavier?

2.      What about their size?

3.      What engine develops higher speed?

4.      What engine consumes more fuel? 

5.      What airplanes are powered by turboprop engines?

6.      What airplanes are powered by turbojet engines?

Exercise 13.  Make questions to the underlined words

1.     Types of engines, their number and location on the airplane depend on the airplane performances.

2.     Jet engines fall into two main classes: air-breathing engines and rocket engines.

3.     The jet is produced by the combustion of the fuel in the compressed air.

4.     Rockets find extensive use.

5.     The simplest type of   air-breathing engines is the ramjet engine.

6.     The main components of the ramjet are: the diffuser, the combustion chamber and the jet nozzle.

7.     Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multi-engine aircraft.

Exercise 14.  Read the texts and write annotations.

a)    The Ramjet Engine

The simplest type of jet engine is the ramjet. This engine consists of a diffuser, a combustion chamber, a discharge nozzle. The function of a diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a pressure. The diffuser delivers the air at a static pressure higher than atmospheric pressure to the combustion chamber. There fuel is mixed with the air and ignited.

The burning causes the specific volume of the air to increase. The air is accelerated in the combustion chamber, where it burns at constant pressure to a high temperature. High temperature gases are delivered to the discharge nozzle to produce exit velocity greater than the entrance velocity. The fuel used in this type of engine is usually a liquid one.

Theoretically, ramjet operation is limited to altitudes below 90000 feet because atmospheric oxygen is necessary for combustion. The velocity that can be obtained by a ramjet engine is unlimited, theoretically.

Really the faster it travels the better it operates and the more thrust it develops. Its speed is limited, however, at Mach 5,0 because the skin temperature has a harmful effect on the metals used in construction.

Ramjet engines are used in guided missiles. Ramjets are sometimes used experimentally on helicopters and in pods on fighters and bombers.

b)   The Turbojet Engine

This engine consists of a diffuser, a mechanical compressor, a combustion chamber, a mechanical turbine and a discharged nozzle.

The function of a diffuser is to transform the kinetic energy of the entering air into a static pressure. The diffuser delivers its air to the mechanical compressor which compresses the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber. The high temperature gases then enter the turbine.

The turbine is directly connected to the compressor, and all the power developed by the turbine is absorbed by the compressor and the auxiliary apparatus. The main function of the turbine is to provide power for the mechanical compressor. After the gases leave the turbine, they enter the discharged nozzle and are ejected with a velocity greater than the flight velocity. This produces a thrust for propulsion.

The turbojet engine is product of one of the most intensive engineering development programs in aviation history. Since its introduction, the increase in its performance has been phenomenal and it is now in mass production for various airplanes.

It is now the standard power plant for nearly all high-speed military fighters and bombers.

Grammar Practice: Gerund (V-ing)

He achieved these results by raising temperature. – Он достиг этих результатов (повышая) при повышении температуры.

On returning home he began preparing his report. – Возвратившись (по возвращению) домой, он приступил к подготовке доклада.

In preparing the report he used new materials. – При подготовке доклада он использовал новый материал.

Exercise 15. Translate the sentences with the Gerund after the prepositions.

1.     There can be no progress in science without experimenting.

2.     By using the latest data the designer can improve the construction.

3.     Before inventing the radio people had less opportunity for communication.

4.     The possibility of using a reaction jet had interested aircraft designers for a long time.

5.     All metal expand upon heating.

6.     On cooling all bodies decrease.

7.     Experiments show that all gases expand on heating and decrease on cooling.

8.     On taking off from the Earth the rocket must get as much as acceleration as possible to reach the necessary speed.

9.     We may get an electric flow by moving an electric conductor in a magnetic field.

10.     There are other ways of making an electric current flow along a wire.

11.     Flight and navigation instruments serve for aircraft handling and steering in flight.

12.     Their principle of operation is based on measuring the atmospheric pressure.

13.          Any altitude can be determined by measuring the pressure associated with it at a given moment.

Exercise 16. Translate the sentences. Gerund or Participle I?

1.     The airflow is an important factor in determining the amount of thrust.

2.     The combustion chamber has the diffi­cult task of burning large quantities of fuel with extensive volumes of air. 

3.      The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories.

4.      It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature.

5.     The air passing through the engine has to be accelerated.

6.     The jet engine although appearing so different from the piston engine- propeller combination applies the same basic principles to effect propulsion.

7.     The ramjet engine has no major rotating parts.

8.     The resulting expansion of gases causes a rise in pressure forcing the valves to close and the expanding gases are then ejected rearwards.

9.     The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary considerably.

10. The temperature of the gas entering the exhaust system is between 550 and 850 deg. C.

Exercise 17. Replace  the Russian words and word-combinations by the  English ones.

1.      The gas turbine engine is essentially a тепловой двигатель using air as a рабочего тела to provide thrust.

2.      Газотурбинный двигатель  consists of a rotary air compressor with an воздухозаборником, one or more камер сгорания, a turbine, and an выхлопного устройства.

3.      There are two basic types of роторных компрессора: centrifugal flow and осевой compressors. 

4.      Both types приводятся в движение by the engine turbine and are coupled direct to the валу турбины

5.      The function of the compressor is ускорить the air, распространить  it and to produce the required повышение давления.

6.      The axial flow compressor расходует far more air than a центробежный компрессор of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much higher степень повышения давления.

7.      Камера сгорания has the diffi­cult task of burning большого количества топлива with огромным количеством воздуха supplied by the compressor.

8.      The turbine has the task of создание мощности to drive the compressor and accessories.

9.      The turbine may consist of нескольких ступеней.

10. Each stage employs one row of неподвижных направляющих лопаток соплового аппарата and one row of вращающихся лопаток.

11. The exhaust system passes the выхлопные газы турбины to the atmosphere at a velocity and in the required direction чтобы создать тягу.

12. The use of лопаток с воздушным охлаждением in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.

Exercise 18. Answer the questions.

1.      What does the gas turbine use to provide thrust?

2.      What does the gas turbine consist of?

3.      What basic types of rotary air compressors are there?

4.      What are they driven by?

5.      What is the function of the compressor?

6.      What compressor gives more thrust?

7.      What is the function of the combustion chamber?

8.      What is the function of the turbine?

9.      What does each stage of the turbine employ?

10. What system passes the turbine discharge gases турбины to atmosphere?

11. What permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency?

Exercise 19.  True or false?

1.      The gas turbine engine is not a heat engine. 

2.      A gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake, one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust system.

3.      There are four basic types of rotary air compressors. 

4.      Both types of compressors are driven by the combustion chambers. 

5.       The function of the compressor is to burn the air.  

6.      The centrifugal flow compressor consumes far more air than the axial compressor of the same frontal area. 

7.      The axial flow compressor can be designed to attain much higher pres­sure ratios.

8.      The combustion chamber has the diffi­cult task of burning large quantities of fuel   with extensive volumes of air supplied by the compressor.

9.      The turbine has the task of providing power to drive exhaust system. 

10. The turbine consists of one stage.

11. The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to the aircraft at a velocity and in the required direction to provide thrust.

12. The use of liquid-cooled blades in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.

Exercise 20. Make the following sentences complete.

1.      The function of the gas turbine engine is to …

2.      The function of the turbine is to …

3.      The function of the compressor  is to …

4.      The function of the combustion chamber is to …

5.      The function of the exhaust system is to …

6.      The function of the air-cooled blades is to …

Exercise 21. Speak about the gas turbine engine using the key-words.

1.      The  gas turbine engine

a heat engine

to use air

to provide thrust

to consist of

2.      The compressor

there are two types

to be driven by

to be coupled to

The function of the compressor is to …

3.      The axial compressor

to consume far more air

to give more thrust

4.      The combustion chamber

The function of the combustion chamber is to …

5.      The turbine

the function of the turbine is to …

to consist of

may rotate at speeds

to have an entry temperature

6.      The exhaust system

The function of the exhaust system is to…

Exercise 22. Make questions to the underlined words.

1.      The gas turbine engine uses air as a working fluid to provide thrust.

2.      The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake, one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet.

3.      There are two basic types of rotary air compressors: centrifugal flow and axial flow compressors.

4.      Both types of compressors are driven by the engine turbine.

5.      The function of the compressor is to accelerate  the air, to diffuse  it and to produce the required pressure rise.

6.      The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to the atmosphere. 

7.      The use of air-cooled blades permits a higher gas temperature and a consequently higher thermal efficiency.

8.      The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the temperature rise required.

 

 

Exercise 23. Ask the questions.

1. …?

The gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine.

2…?

The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake, one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet.

3… ?

The compressors are driven by the engine turbine.

4. … ?

  The compressors are coupled direct to the turbine shaft.

5. … ?

The function of the compressor is to accelerate the air, to diffuse it and to produce the required pressure rise.

6… ?

The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories. 

7…?

The turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per second.   

8… ?

The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to

       atmosphere to provide the resultant thrust.

Exercise 24. Do the two-way translation.

1.             Что используют газотурбинные двигатели в качестве рабочего тела? 2.             Из чего состоит газотурбинный  двигатель? 3.             К чему присоединяется компрессор? 4.             Какова задача компрессора? 5.             Какой тип компрессора расходует больше воздуха? 6.             На какой скорости могут вращаться законцовки лопасти турбины? 7.             Что позволяет увеличивать температуру газа в турбине?

1.         The gas turbine engines use air as a working fluid to provide thrust. 2.         The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake, one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet. 3.         The compressors   are coupled direct to the turbine shaft. 4.         The function of the compressor is to accelerate the air, to diffuse it and to produce the required pressure rise. 5.         The axial compressor consumes far more air than a centrifugal com­pressor of the same frontal area. 6.     The turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per second. 7.         The use of air-cooled blades in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.

Методические рекомендации по написанию рефератов и аннотаций

Реферат - это краткое изложение содержания первоисточника с основными фактическими сведениями и выводами на языке оригинала или родном языке. Различают два вида рефератов: информативный, или реферат-конспект, и индикативный, или реферат-резюме.

Реферат обычно состоит из трех частей:

1) заголовочной (вводной), содержащей выходные данные, название публикации, фамилию автора, место издания, издательство, год, число страниц, иллюстраций. Независимо от того, на каком языке пишется реферат иностранного источника, заголовочная часть составляется на иностранном языке;

2) собственно реферативной (описательной), представляющей собой концентрированную передачу содержания реферируемого документа (главную идею и существенные положения). Эта часть строится на базе выделенных при чтении ключевых фрагментов. Здесь принято не выделять абзацы;

3) заключительной, в которой содержатся основные выводы по проделанной работе в целом. Иногда эта часть может входить в собственно реферативную.

Аннотация – это краткая справка о тексте, патенте, книге, справочнике с точки зрения содержания. При аннотировании печатный материал излагается в предельно сжатой форме. Это процесс свертывания (сжатия) информации с очень большим уменьшением по отношению к оригиналу.

В отличие от реферата, который отвечает на вопрос: «ЧТО сказано, ЧТО излагается в первоисточнике?», аннотация отвечает на вопрос: «О ЧЕМ говорится в первоисточнике?» Умение составлять аннотацию необходимо студентам в учебном процессе для обработки печатной информации на иностранном и русском языках и при оформлении записок к дипломным проектам. Специалисты и ученые обязаны уметь писать аннотации к своим научным статьям, докладам для конференций, используемой литературе и т.д.

Клише – это речевой стереотип, готовый оборот, используемый в качестве легко воспроизводимого в определенных условиях и контекстах стандарта.

·       Общая характеристика статьи: The paper (article) under discussion

(consideration) is intended (aims) to describe (explain, examine, survey) …

·       Задачи, поставленные автором: The author outlines (points out, reviews,

·       analyses)…

·       Оценка полученных результатов исследования: The results obtained (confirm ,lead to, show)…

·        Подведение итогов, выводов по работе: The paper summarizes, in summing up, at the end of the article the author sums up…

К аннотациям как на русском, так и на английском языке предъявляются следующие требования:

§     Лаконичность языка, т.е. использование простых предложений (глаголы употребляются всегда в настоящем времени в действительном или страдательном залоге. Модальные глаголы, как правило, отсутствуют).

§     Строгая логическая структура аннотации.

§     Обязательное введение в текст аннотации безличных конструкций и отдельных слов, например: «Сообщается…», «Подробно описывается», «Кратко рассматривается…», «Излагаются…», «Комментируются…» и др., с помощью которых происходит введение и описание текста оригинала.

§     Недопущение повторений в заглавии и тексте аннотации.

§     Точность в передаче заглавия оригинала, отдельных формулировок и определений.

§     Использование общепринятых сокращений слов, таких, как напр., и т.д., и т.п., и др.

§     Единство терминов и обозначений.

Текст аннотации должен быть максимально кратким, от 500 до 1000 печатных знаков.

Основные штампы (key-patterns) аннотаций на английском и русском языках:

1. The article (paper, book, etc.) deals with…	1. Эта статья (работа, книга и т.д.) касается…
2. As the title implies the article describes…	2. Согласно названию, в статье описывается…
3. It is specially noted…	3. Особенно отмечается…
4. A mention should be made…	4. Упоминается…
5. It is spoken in detail…	5. Подробно описывается…
6. …are noted	6. Упоминаются…
7. It is reported…	7. Сообщается…
8. The text gives a valuable information on…	8. Текст дает ценную информацию…
9. Much attention is given to…	9. Большое внимание уделяется…
10. The article is of interest to…	10. Эта статья представляет интерес для…
11. It (the article) gives a detailed analysis of …	11. Она (статья) дает детальный анализ…
12. It draws our attention to…	12. Она (статья, работа) привлекает наше внимание к…
13. The difference between the terms…and…should be stressed	13. Следует подчеркнуть различие между терминами …и…
14. It should be stressed (emphasized) that…	14. Следует подчеркнуть, что…
15. …is proposed	15. Предлагается…
16. …are examined	16. Проверяются (рассматриваются)
17. …are discussed	17. Обсуждаются…
18. An option permits…	18. Выбор позволяет…
19. The method proposed … etc.	19. Предлагаемый метод… и т.д.

The Complex Object

Part A (General English)

Сложное дополнение может состоять из прямого дополнения и инфинитива:

I want you to visit me in the evening. Я хочу, чтобы вы навестили меня вечером.

Pete wants me to write the letter. Петя хочет, чтобы я написал это письмо.

После глаголов see, hear, watch, make, feel, let в сложном дополнении инфинитив употребляется без частицы to:

I saw him come into the house. Я видел, что он вошел в дом.

He heard me open the door. Он слышал, что я открыла дверь.

Сложное дополнение может также состоять из прямого дополнения и причастия:

I heard her singing an English song. Я слышал, как она пела английскую песню.

He watched them playing in the garden. Он наблюдал за тем, как они играли в саду.

Разница между ними заключается в следующем:

Сложное дополнение с инфинитивом обозначает однократное действие:

I heard her say these words. Я слышал, что она сказала эти слова.

We saw her run into the house. Мы видели, что она вбежала в дом. Сложное дополнение с причастием настоящего времени подчеркивает процесс протекания действия:

I saw her crossing the street. Я видел, как она переходила улицу.

I watched the children playing with a ball. Я наблюдал за тем, как дети играли в мяч.

Сложное дополнение не имеет точного соответствия в русском языке и переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением с союзами что, чтобы(если в сложное дополнение входит инфинитив) и как (если в сложное дополнение входит причастие настоящего времени).

Упражнение 1.

Закончите предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение.

E.g “Bring me a book,” said my brother to me.

My brother wanted meto bring him a book.

1. The teacher said to the pupils: “Learn the rule.” — The teacher wanted ... 2. “Be careful, or else you will spill the milk,” said my mother to me. — My mother did not want ... 3. “My daughter will go to a ballet school,” said the woman. — The woman wanted ...4. The man said: “My son will study mathematics.” —The man wanted ... 5. “Oh, father, buy me this toy, please,” said the little boy. — The little boy wanted …6. “Wait for me after school,” said Ann to me. — Ann wanted ... 7. “Fix the shelf in the kitchen,” my father said to me. — My father wanted ... 8. “It will be very good if you study English,” said my brother to me. —My brother wanted ... 9. “Fetch me some water from the river, children,” said our grandmother. — Our grandmother wanted ... 10. “Come to my birthday party,” said Kate to her classmates. — Kate want­ed ... 11. The biology teacher said to us: “Collect some insects in summer.” — The biology teacher wanted ...12. “Don’t eat ice cream before dinner,” said our aunt to us. Our aunt did not want ... 13. “Come and live in St Petersburg with me,” said my mother to me. My mother wanted...

Упражнение 2.

Переведите на английский язык, употребляя сложное дополнение.

1. Я хочу, чтобы все дети смеялись. 2. Я хочу, чтобы все это прочитали. 3. Мне хотелось бы, чтобы доктор посмотрел его. 4. Дети хотели, чтобы я рассказал им сказку. 5. Я не хочу, чтобы она знала об этом. 6. Он хотел, чтобы его друг пошел с ним. 7. Мой брат хочет, чтобы я изучала испанский язык. 8. Я бы хотел, чтобы мои ученики хорошо знали английский язык. 9. Я не хочу, чтобы ты по­лучил плохую оценку. 10. Мне бы не хотелось, что­бы они опоздали. 11. Я не хотела, чтобы вы меня ждали. 12. Она бы хотела, чтобы ее брат получил первый приз. 13. Я хочу, чтобы вы прочли эту книгу. 14. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы приехали к нам. 15. Она хотела, чтобы ее сын хорошо окончил школу. 16. Им бы хотелось, чтобы мы проиграли игру. 17. Она не хотела, чтобы я уехал в Москву. 18. Я бы не хотел, чтобы вы потеряли мою книгу. 19. Папа хочет, чтобы я была пианисткой. 20. Мы хотим, чтобы этот артист приехал к нам в школу. 21. Вам бы хотелось, чтобы я рассказал вам эту историю? 22. Хотите, я дам вам мой словарь?

Упражнение 3.

Перепишите следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение вместо придаточных дополнительных предложений.

E.g. I expect that she will send me a letter.

I expect her to send me a letter.

I know that he is a great scientist.

I know him to be a great scientist.

1. I know that my friend is a just man. 2. I ex­pect that he will understand your problem and help you to solve it. 3. I expected that she would behave quite differently. 4. I did not expect that my brother would forget to send her flowers. 5. He knows that my mother is a very kind woman. 6. She expected that her brother would bring her the book. 7. I know that your uncle is an excellent mathematician. 8. People expect that the 21st century will bring peace on the Earth. 9. We know that it is true. 10. I never expected that he would be a politician. 11. No one expects that the President will resign. 12. We expect that the economy will grow by 2% next year. 13. I didn’t expect that he knew Russian so well. 14. I expect that it will take about an hour to get home. 15. The kids know that all her pies are delicious. 16. They expect that he will have a good working knowledge of computers. 17. Nobody expected that she would win the gold medal.

Упражнение 4.

Переведите на английский язык, употребляя сложное дополнение.

1. Я рассчитываю, что письмо придет завтра. 2. Она рассчитывала, что учитель похвалит ее. 3. Он не рассчитывал, что они вернутся так поздно. 4. Я знаю, что она талантливая певица. 5. Я знала, что он великий ученый. 6. Мы не рассчитывали, что вы так много сделаете. 7. Учитель рассчиты­вал, что ученики поймут правило. 8. Я не ожидал, что он напишет такие прекрасные стихи. 9. Она знала, что он очень занятой человек. 10. Все знали, что она прогрессивный ученый. 11. Я знаю, что твоя сестра — очень способная студентка. 12. Все знают, что Байрон — великий поэт. 13. Я не ожидал, что это случится так скоро. 14. Мы рас­считываем, что вы нам поможете. 15. Он ожидал, что министр ответит сразу. 16. Мы рассчитывали, что погода изменится.

Упражнение 5.

Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение с причастием.

E.g. Не was reading in the garden. She saw him..

She saw him reading in the garden.

1. We noticed a man. The man was cleaning his shoes. 2. He saw two girls. They were dancing on the stage. 3. She watched the children. They were running and playing in the garden. 4. I saw her. She was arranging her hair. 5. We saw our neighbour. Неwas listening to the latest news on the radio. 6. The cat was rubbing against my legs. I felt it. 7. They were fishing. We saw it. 8. The pupils were writing a paper. The teacher watched them. 9. A caterpillar was crawling on my arm. I felt it. 10. We heard our talented performer last night. She was singing a Russian folk song. 11. I watched the sun. It was rising. 12. I heard him. He was singing an English song. 13. John, heard his sister. She was talking loudly on the veranda. 14. We saw Ben. He was crossing the square. 15. They heard their father. He was playing the piano in the drawing room. 16. I can see the train. It is coming. 17. I watched the rain. It was beating down the flowers in the garden. 18.1 saw a group of boys. They were eating ice cream. 19. We noticed a group of people. They were digging pota­toes in the field. 20. Didn’t you see her? She was smiling at you. 21. The girl was singing. I heard her. 22. They were talking about computers. He heard them. 23. You and your friend were walking along the street yesterday. I saw you. 24. The little girls were playing on the grass. We watched them. 25. The ship was leaving the port. He stood and looked at it. 26. She was sleeping peacefully in her bed. Mother watched her.

Упражнение 6.

Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение с инфинитивом.

E.g. Не dropped his bag. I saw it.

I saw him drop his bag.

1.The boy noticed a bird. It flew on to the bush near the window. 2. Jane saw her neighbor. He opened the door of his flat and went in. 3. I saw him. He pointed to a picture on the wall. 4. I heard him. He shut the door of the study. 5. We saw that the children climbed to the tops of the trees. 6. I noticed that Henry went up and spoke to the stranger.7. He slipped and fell. I saw it. 8. I heard that she suddenly cried out loudly. 9. She bent and picked up something from the floor. The policeman saw it. 9. I saw that he opened the door and left the room. 11. She dropped the cup on the floor and broke it. I saw it. 12. They turned the corner and disappeared. We watched them. 13. The doctor touched the boy’s leg. The boy felt it. 14. Pete bought some flowers. His friends saw it. 15. The wounded hunter felt that the bear touched him, but he did not move. 16. Shall we hear it if the telephone rings? 17. Tamara saw that the boat drifted down the river. 18. The ship sailed away from the shore. They saw it. 19. Have you heard how he sings the part of Hermann in Tchaikovsky’s “Queen of Spades”?

Part B (Technical English)

The Complex Object Subject + Predicate + noun(pronoun)+ Infinitive We know electrons to travel from the cathode to the anode. They want this aircraft to come into service. Мы знаем, что электроны движутся  … Они хотят, чтобы этот самолет поступил на вооружение
The Complex Object is used after the verbs:
to think – думать  to believe, to assume - полагать lo consider – считать  to sup­pose – предполагать to find  - обнаруживать, находить tо expect – ожидать	to know - знать to want, to wish – хотеть to allow – позволять  to report – сообщать to show - показывать to declare – заявлять tо understand - понимать

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences.

1.                  At the lower altitude we know the air to consist of oxygen and nitrogen.

2.                  The designers want the sizes of the structure to be decreased.

3.                  The experts allowed the engineers to remove some units.

4.                  The scientists asked the engineers to support them in the research work.

5.                  The commander ordered his men to load the ship.

6.                  The specialists wanted the vehicle to weigh less than the previous one.

7.                  The engineer allowed the workers to stop the vehicle for the overhaul.

8.                  The scientists wanted the mission to be included into the general plan of the institute.

9.                  The specialists wished the expedition to have been completed by the end of the month.

10.              They wanted the noise in the vehicle to be decreased.

The Complex Subject

Part A (General English)

Сложное подлежащее (Complex Subject) состоит из подлежащего (существительное или местоимение в именительном падеже), составного глагольного сказуемого: первая часть – глагол в пассивном залоге, вторая часть – инфинитив. Эта конструкция строится по следующей схеме:

ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ существительное в общем или местоимение в именительном падеже	Составное глагольное сказуемое
	СКАЗУЕМОЕ (обычно глагол в страдательном залоге	ИНФИНИТИВ
He Он,	is known как известно,	to go to work to Siberia. Поедет работать в Сибирь
All bodies Все тела	are known известно	to possess weight. обладают весом.
Можно перевести и простым предложение с водным словом/предложением: Все тела, как известно, обладают весом.

1.      The people of all ancient civilizations are known to have made maps. Известно, что люди всех древних цивилизаций составляли карты.

2.      Philip was known to be a young man without money Знали, что Филипп был молодым человеком без денег.

3.      We were allowed to leave. Нам разрешили уйти

4.      They were expected to return in the morning. Ожидали, что они вернутся утром.

5.      Известно, что экспедиция пропала. The expedition is known to have disappeared.

6.      Сообщили, что рейс задерживается из-за шторма. The flight is announced to be delaying because of the storm.

7.      Говорят, он побывал во всех странах в мире. He is said to have been to all the countries in the world.

8.      They are unlikely to come in time. Они вряд ли придут вовремя.

9.      The work proved to be useful. Работа оказалась полезной.

10. He turned out to know nothing. Оказалось, что он ничего не знает.

11. He is likely to return on Saturday. Он скорее всего вернется в субботу.

12. She is unlikely to support your idea. Она вряд ли поддержит вашу идею.

13. The atmosphere has been proved to extend several hundred kilometers above the earth.

14. Доказано, что атмосфера простирается на несколько сот километров над землей.

15. When two bodies oscillate at the same frequency they are said to be in resonance.

16. Когда два тела колеблются с одинаковой частотой, говорят, что они находятся в резонансе

17. The atom can be said to be the smallest component part of a substance which keeps its identity. Можно сказать, что атом является мельчайшей составной частью, которая сохраняет свойства данного вещества.

18. Mr. Bunting was supposed to know nothing about it Полагали, что мистер Вантинг ничего не знает об этом.

Не was said to work a lot - Говорили, что он много работает.

...was said to..— Говорили, что...

...was seen to...— Видели, что...

...was heard to...— Слышали, что...

...was supposed to...— Предполагали, что...

...was believed to...— Полагали, что...

...was expected to..— Ожидали, что

...was reported to...— Сообщали, что

...was considered to...— Считали, что

...was thought to...— Думали, что..,

...was found to...— Обнаружили, что...

...was announced to...— Объявили, что...

...was known to...— Было известно, что...

Упр. 1. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на сложное подлежащее.

1. Не was said to be one of the most promising nuclear physicists. 2. He is said to be a good translator. 3. Roberta was known to be an honest and hard-working girl. 4. Clyde was expected to arrive at the week-end. 5. Becky and Tom were supposed to have stayed at the widow Douglas. 6. The number of the unemployed is reported to be increasing with every year. 7. Many new textbooks are expected to be published soon. 8. The Moscow Underground is said to be the finest in the world. 9. Chernyshevsky is known to have spoken several foreign languages. 10. A hare is known to run very fast. 11. The man was seen to take off his coat. 12. The diamond content of the mines in Western Yakutia is said to be in no way inferior to that of the world-famous South African mines. 13. That power station is known to be situated on the Angara River. 14. These devices are considered to be very effective. 15. Many books are known to be published in our country every year. 16. You are supposed to graduate in four years. 17. Radium is said to be very radioactive. 18. This device was known to have been designed in that laboratory. 19. His invention is considered to be of great importance. 20. The sun is known to represent a mass of compressed gases. 21. The new rocket is reported to go into operation next year. 22. This type of rocket is supposed to have many advantages. 23. For a longtime the atom was thought to be indivisible. 24. The helium atom was found to have two electrons. 25. I did not know what I was expected to say to that, so I said nothing.

Упр. 2. Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное подлежащее.

E.g. We heard that a car stopped outside the door.

A car was heard to stop outside the door.

It is believed that the poem was written by Byron.

The poem is believed to have been written by Byron.

1. We know Bernard Shaw to have been a very witty man. 2. People consider the climate there to be very healthful. 3. It was announced that the Chinese dancers were arriving next week. 4. It is expected that the performance will be a success. 5. It is said that the book is popular with both old and young. 6. It is believed that the poem was written by an unknown soldier. 7. It is supposed that the playwright is working at a new comedy. 8. It is reported that the flood has caused much damage to the crops. 9. It was supposed that the crops would be rich that year. 10. It has been found that this mineral water is very good for the liver. 11. Scientists consider that electricity exists throughout space. 12. It is said that the weather in Europe was exceedingly hot last summer. 13. It is said that this man was very handsome in his youth. 14. It was reported that five ships were missing after the battle.

Следующие глаголы в предложениях, содержащих Complex Subject, употребляются в Active Voice:

to seem, to appear, to turn out, to happen

Упр. 3. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на сложное подлежащее.

1. Irving turned out to be a long, pale-faced fellow. 2. His office turned out to be in one of the back streets. 3. He appeared to be an ideal man. 4. She doesn't seem to want to do anything I suggest. 5. He turned out to have no feeling whatever for his nephew. 6. This appeared to amuse the policeman. 7. You can easily get in through the window if the door happens to be locked. 8. The peasants did not seem to see her. 9. The Gadfly seemed to have taken a dislike to Signora Grassini from the time of their first meeting. 10. You don't seem to have done any great thing to yourself by going away. 11. "Jim," he said at last, in a voice that did not seem to belong to him. 12. Money just doesn't happen to interest me. 13. In the middle of the lecture Dr. Sommerville happened to pause and look out of the window. 14. From the very first men. turn of Long John, I was afraid that he might turn out to be the very one-legged sailor whom I had watched for so long at the inn. 15. Clyde seemed to have been thinking of no one else but Sondra since their last meeting. 16. Clyde appeared to have forgotten of his promise to spend his spare eve. mugs with Roberta. 17. She appeared to be an excellent actress. 18. One day a Hare happened to moot a Tortoise. 19. The Tortoise seemed to be moving very slowly. 20. The Hare turned out to be the loser of the race. 21. The apparatus seemed to be in excellent condition. 22. You appear to have found in him something that I have missed. 23. This work seems to take much time. 24. The operation seemed to be a complicated one. 25. The new methods of work appear to be very effective. 26. The percentage of carbon in this steel turned out to be low.

Упр. 4. Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное подлежащее.

E.g. It appeared that they had lost the way. They appeared to have lost the way.

1. It seems they know all about it. 2. It seems they have heard all about it. 3. It seemed that the discussion was coming to an end. 4. It seems that you don't approve of the idea. 5. It seemed that the house had not been lived in for a long time. 6. It appeared that he was losing patience. 7. It appeared that he had not heard what had been said. 8. It happened that I was present at the opening session. 9. It so happened that I overheard their conversation. 10. It turned out that my prediction was correct. 11. It turned out that the language of the article was quite easy.

Запомните следующие предложения, содержащие Complex Subject

He is likely to win the prize.- Похоже, что он выиграет приз.

He is sure to come.- Он обязательно придет.

Упр. 5. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на словосочетания to be likely to, to be sure to.

1. Mr. Worthing is sure to be back soon. 2. These two young people are sure to be very good friends. 3. You are sure to be there tomorrow night, aren't you? 4. We most of us want a good many things that we are not likely to get. 5. He is sure to tell me all about this even if I don't ask him. 6. When Sondra said that they were sure to meet again, she saw Clyde's face suddenly brighten. 7. If we go on arguing, we are sure to quarrel. 8. They are sure to acknowledge your talent. 9. He is sure to give us some useful information. 10. The article is likely to appear in the next issue of the journal. U. She is not likely to change her opinion. 12. They were sure to come to an understanding. 13. Don't worry: everything is sure to turn out all right. 14. This new course of treatment is sure to help your grandmother.

Упр. 6. Переведите на английский язык, употребляя сложное подлежащее.

1. Известно, что марсианские каналы были открыты в 1877 году.

2. Предполагают, что заседание закончится в десять часов. 3. Полагают, что они знают об этом больше, чем хотят показать. 4. Джим оказался храбрым мальчиком. 5. Рочестер случайно встретил Джейн по дороге домой. 6. Говорят, что он работает над своим изобретением уже несколько лет. 7. Говорят, что эта статья переведена на все языки мира. 8. Вы, кажется, много читали до поступления в университет. 9. Как известно, Жуковский был прекрасным педагогом и лектором. 10. Никак не ожидали, что холодная погода наступит так рано. 11. Оказалось, что мы уже когда-то встречались. 12. Вы, кажется, устали. 13. Условия работы оказались более трудными, чем предполагалось. 14. Вы случайно не знаете этого человека? 15. Книга, которую вы мне дали, оказалась скучной. 16. Новые автобусы оказались очень удобными. 17. Из трех сестер Бронте Шарлотта считается наиболее талантливой. 18. Как известно, английская писательница Войнич жила в течение нескольких лет в Петербурге и изучала русскую литературу. Считают, что русская литература оказала влияние на ее творчество. 19. Ваш приятель, кажется, очень интересуется древней историей. 20. Известно, что римляне построили на Британских островах хорошие дороги. 21. Полагают, что поэма «Беовульф» была написана в VIII веке. 22. Вальтер Скотт считается создателем исторического романа. 23. Сообщают, что экспедиция достигла места назначения. 24. Я случайно знаю номер его телефона. 25. Он оказался хорошим спортсменом. 26. Он, кажется, пишет новую статью: кажется, он работает над ней уже две недели. 27. Я случайно встретил его в Москве. 28. Говорят, что это здание было построено в XVII веке.

Part B (Technical English)

The Complex Subject Noun/pronoun + verb + Infinitive
The Complex Subject  is used with: the verbs in the Passive Voice:
to report - сообщать to think - думать to state - устанавливать to announce - объявлять to hear - слышать  to  understand  - понимать  e.g. The plane is reported to have landed.	to know  - знать to suppose - предполагать to expect  - ожидать to con­sider - считать to believe - полагать tо say – говорить Сообщают, что самолет совершил посадку. Как сообщают, самолет совершил посадку.
the word groups: to be likely - вероятно to be unlikely – маловероятно, вряд ли to be certain/to be sure – несомненно, обязательно, бесспорно
the verbs: to seem/to appear  - казаться, по-видимому to happen/to chance - случаться to prove/to turn out - оказываться

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences with “is said (is stated, is  …) +Infinitive”:

1.      The laboratory is assumed to contain the complicated equipment required to support and perform various experiments.

2.      45,000 international voice channels are said to exist in the world now.

3.      Submarine cables are believed to play a very significant role in communication systems.

4.      Written language is stated to be an evident transformation of oral (устный) speech.

5.      Frequencies above 1,500 kilohertz were found to propagate much farther than it had been expected.

6.      Nuclear energy is expected to become the world's main source of power.

7.      Alpha rays are thought to be the least penetrating and easily stopped even by an inch of air.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences with "to seem”, “to appear”, “to happen, “to prove”+ Infinitive”:

1.  At present it seems more practicable to produce heat from nuclear sources than to convert the heat to electricity by thermoelectric units.

2.  It is true that many real and significant problems seem too difficult to solve.

3.  People happened to have known about the radioactivity long time ago.

4.  Computers prove to be very important in computing to an accuracy of three or four significant figures.

5.  There seems to be three series of radioactive elements.

6.  The memory of the computer appears to be limited in some extent.

7.  The reference book proved to have been very essential in the research work.

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences with “is likely (is certain, is sure…) + Infinitive”.

1.                  The fault of the device is likely to be caused by noise.

2.                  The radio network is certain to increase with time.

3.                  The new installation is sure to attract much attention.

4.                  The activity of an engineer is likely to extend.

5.                  This method of switching is sure to be cheaper.

6.                  Radio is certain to be the most significant means of communication.

7.                  Much information is likely to come through   space.

8.                  The data is likely to be processed by specialists.

Exercise 4.Translate the following sentences paying attention to the functions of the Infinitive.

1.      The scientists allowed the workers to locate the installation in this area.

2.      To locate a relay station one must take into consideration weather and climate conditions.

3.      The engineers wanted the workers to fulfill the task as soon as possible.

4.      The specialist asked the operator to process the data as soon as possible.

5.      The commander ordered his men to string wires over the area.

6.      New experiments in building the spaceship are known to be pro­vided by some scientific institutes and research laboratories.

7.      The information has been essential enough to understand the faults of the device.

8.      The instrument consists of a special system to measure the intensity of solar illumination.

9.      The experimenter wanted the missile to be directed  properly to the target.

10. The attempts happened to be successful.

11. To transmit messages means to propagate news.

Glossary

AIRSPEED, The speed of the airplane through the air.	ВОЗДУШНАЯ СКОРОСТЬ, скорость самолета в воздухе.
AIRWORTHINESS, The condition of the aircraft with respect to its aerodynamic, mechanical, and legal ability to fly.	ЛЕТНАЯ ГОДНОСТЬ, состояние самолета, отражающее его соответствие аэродинамическим, механическим и юридическим нормам для полета.
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT, A small turbine engine in the airplane for supplying electrical and pneumatic power for systems operation on the ground or in flight.	ВСПОМОГАТЕЛЬНАЯ СИЛОВАЯ УСТАНОВКА, малый газотурбинный двигатель на самолете для снабжения электрической и пневматической мощностью для работы систем на земле и в полете.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR, A type of compressor used in a gas turbine engine in which air passes through the compressor in a straight flow, front to rear.	ПРЯМОТОЧНЫЙ КОМПРЕССОР, тип компрессора, используемый для газотурбинного двигателя, в котором воздух проходит через компрессор прямым потоком от передней его части к задней.
BUILT-IN TEST EQUIPMENT, Equipment installed on the airplane and in airplane systems to test the systems without external test equipment.	ВСТРОЕННОЕ ОБОРУДОВАНИЕ ДЛЯ ПРОВЕРКИ, оборудование, установленное на самолете и в системах самолета для их проверки без внешнего дополнительного оборудования для проверки.
CALIBRATE, To repair, adjust, fix or correct the measuring capabilities of a measuring device.	КАЛИБРОВАТЬ, починить, отрегулировать или откорректировать измерительные возможности приборов для измерения величин.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER, A part of an engine for burning fuel in the air supplied by the compressor.	КАМЕРА СГОРАНИЯ, часть двигателя для сжигания топлива о воздухе, подаваемого компрессором.
COMPRESSOR, A rotating part of an engine driven by a mechanical shaft from the turbines for increasing air pressure and temperature before the air enters the combustion chamber, Low pressure compressor - front section of compressor, High pressure compressor - rear section of compressor	КОМПРЕССОР, вращающаяся часть двигателя, приводимая в движение механическим валом от турбин для увеличения давления и температуры воздуха перед входом воздуха в камеру сгорания; компрессор низкого давления - передняя секция компрессора, компрессор высокого давления - задняя секция компрессора.
CORROSION, A chemical action which causes gradual destruction of the surface of a metal by oxidation or chemical contamination.	КОРРОЗИЯ, химическая реакция, которая вызывает постепенное разрушение поверхности металла при его окислении или химическом разложении.
COWL, A removable cover around the engine sections for access to the components on the engine. Fan Cowl - Cover around the fan section. Nose Cowl - Front section of the nacelle for air inlet to the engine. Side Cowl - Cover around the sides of the engine. Thrust Reverser Cowl - Cover around the core section. Translating Cowl - The moveable outer portion of the thrust reverser cowl which is operated during reverse thrust.	КАПОТ, съемный кожух вокруг секций двигателя для доступа к компонентам двигателя. КАПОТ ВЕНТИЛЯТОРА - кожух вокруг секции вентилятора. ПЕРЕДНИЙ КАПОТ-передняя секция гондолы для входа воздуха в двигатель. БОКОВОЙ КАПОТ-кожух с боков двигателя. КАПОТ МЕХАНИЗМА РЕВЕРСА ТЯГИ - кожух вокруг внутренней секции ПЕРЕВОДНОЙ КАПОТ - подвижная наружная часть капота механизма реверса тяги, которая работает во время использования реверсивной тяги
DIFFUSER, A part of an engine between the compressor and combustion chamber for reducing the airflow speed and increasing the air pressure.	ДИФФУЗОР, часть двигателя между компрессором и камерой сгорания для понижения скорости воздушного потока и увеличения воздушного давления.
DOCK, A closed-in or protected area reserved for aircraft repairs.  Less structured than a hangar.	ДОК, закрытая или предохраняемая зона, зарезервированная для ремонтов самолета. Меньшая по структуре, чем ангар.
ENGINE BLEED AIR, Air taken from the engine to power various aircraft accessories.	ОТБОР ВОЗДУХА ОТ ДВИГАТЕЛЯ, воздух, взятый от двигателя для задействования различных вспомогательных компонентов самолета.
ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO, the ratio of inlet pressure over exhaust pressure measurements. The ratio is used as the primary parameter to set thrust on some engines.	СТЕПЕНЬ СЖАТИЯ В ДВИГАТЕЛЕ, отношение измерения давления на входе к давлению на выходе. Степень сжатия используется как первичный параметр для установки тяги на некоторых двигателях.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE, The temperature of the engine exhaust measured by thermocouples and displayed by an indicator for monitoring correct engine operation.	ТЕМПЕРАТУРА ВЫХОДЯЩИХ ГАЗОВ, температура выхлопа двигателя, измеренная термопарами и указанная на индикаторе для отслеживания правильной работы двигателя.
FAN, A rotating part of an engine, driven by the low pressure turbine, for air supply to the engine and to the duct around the front part of the engine. The fan provides the major portion of engine thrust.	ВЕНТИЛЯТОР, вращающаяся часть на двигателе, приводимая в движение турбиной низкого давления для подачи воздуха к двигателю и к трубопроводу вокруг передней части двигателя. Вентилятор обеспечивает основную часть тяги двигателя.
FAN COWL, A covering around the fan section of the engine that can be opened for access to the components on the engine.	КАПОТ ВЕНТИЛЯТОРА, кожух вокруг секции вентилятора двигателя, который может открываться для доступа к компонентам двигателя.
FEEDBACK, A part of an output signal which returns to the input for control or indication.	ОБРАТНАЯ СВЯЗЬ, часть выходящего сигнала, который возвращается как входной, для контроля или индикации.
FUEL CONTROL UNIT, A component on the engine for controlling fuel flow for starting and engine operation.	БЛОК УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ТОПЛИВОМ, компонент на двигателе для управления расходом топлива для старта и работы двигателей.
FUEL FLOW, the rate at which an engine consumes fuel measured in units of weight per hour.	РАСХОД ТОПЛИВА, величина потребляемого двигателем топлива, измеряемого в весовых единицах в час.
FUEL HEATER, A component on the engine for heating fuel to prevent icing conditions in the engine fuel system.	ПОДОГРЕВАТЕЛЬ ТОПЛИВА, компонент на двигателе для подогрева топлива, чтобы предотвратить условия обледенения в топливной системе двигателя.
GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT, Equipment used to service, test, move, power, оr repair аn airplane while it is оn the ground.	ОБОРУДОВАНИЕ НАЗЕМНОЙ ПОДДЕРЖКИ, оборудование, используемое для обслуживания, проверки, передвижки, подачи мощности или ремонта, когда самолет находится на земле.
HOIST, А device for lowering and lifting аn engine оr а heavy component during removal and installation оn the airplane.	ЛЕБЕДКА, ПОДЪЕМНИК, устройство для опускания или поднимания двигателя или тяжелых компонентов во время демонтажа и установки на самолет.
INLET GUIDE VANES, А fixed set of blades in front of аn engine compressor for directing airflow to the compressor	ЛОПАТКИ ВХОДНОГО НАПРАВЛЯЮЩЕГО АППАРАТА, фиксированная установка лопаток в передней части компрессора двигателя для направления воздушного потока в компрессор.
JET PUMP, А component in the fuel system, operated bу fuel pressure, for removing water and fuel from а fuel tank.	РЕАКТИВНО-СТРУЙНЫЙ НАСОС, компонент в топливной системе, работающий с помощью давления топлива, для удаления воды и топлива из топливного бака.
LUBRICANT, А substance used to reduce friction between moving parts. It can bе а natural or аn artificial material.	СМАЗОЧНОЕ ВЕЩЕСТВО, вещество, используемое для уменьшения трения между двигающимися частями. Оно может быть натуральным и синтетическим материалом.
МАСН NUMBER, The ratio of the aircraft’s true airspeed to the speed of sound at that point.	ЧИСЛО МАХА, отношение истинной воздушной скорости самолета к скорости звука в этой точке.
MAIN ENGINE CONTROL, А component оn the engine for controlling fuel flow for starting and engine operation.	ОСНОВНОЕ УПРАВЛЕНИЕ ДВИГАТЕЛЕМ, компонент на двигателе для управления расхода топлива для запуска и работы двигателя.
MAINTENANCE, Work accomplished in support of the structure and systems of аn aircraft. It includes, inspection, overhaul, repair, preservation and the replacement of parts.	ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИЯ, работа, выполняемая для поддержания конструкций и систем самолета. Она включает: инспекцию, капитальный ремонт, ремонт, хранение и замену частей.
N1, Speed of the low pressure compressor rotor.	N1, скорость ротора компрессора низкого давления.
N2, High pressure compressor rotor speed.	N2, скорость ротора компрессора высокого давления.
NACELLE, A streamlined enclosure on the wing or fuselage for the engine.	ГОНДОЛА, ограждение вдоль потока на крыле или фюзеляже для двигателя.
NOZZLE, A shaped device for directing flow in a duct.	ФОРСУНКА, НАСАДКА; устройство, имеющее определенную форму для направления потока.
OVERHAUL, To return an aircraft or one of its components to a like-new or just manufactured condition.	КАПИТАЛЬНЫЙ РЕМОНТ, отремонтировать самолет или один из его компонентов как новый, или, как в условиях производства при его изготовлении.
PYLON, A structural component for supporting an engine from the wing.	ПИЛОН, элемент конструкции для поддержки двигателя на крыле.
QUICK ENGINE CHANGE KIT, A collection of components allowing installation of a basic engine on to any of the engine positions of a particular model airplane.	КОМПЛЕКТ ИНСТРУМЕНТОВ ДЛЯ БЫСТРОЙ СМЕНЫ ДВИГАТЕЛЯ, набор элементов, позволяющих установку основного двигателя в любом местоположении для специфических моделей самолета.
RATIO, A specific relationship between one number value and another.	ОТНОШЕНИЕ, определенное отношение между одним численным значением к другому.
REGULATING VALVE, A valve for controlling pressure or flow.	РЕГУЛИРУЮЩИЙ КЛАПАН, клапан для управления давления или потока.
ROTOR, A rotating section of an engine (turbine, compressor) or a generator.	РОТОР, вращающаяся секция двигателя (турбины, компрессора) или генератора.
RUST, The oxidation of iron and iron containing metals. It is usually a reddish brown color.	РЖАВЧИНА, окисление железа или железо-содержащих металлов. Обычно красновато-коричневого цвета.
SPIN BRAKE, A device in the nosewheel well for stopping the wheel rotation after retraction.	ТОРМОЗ ВРАЩЕНИЯ, устройство в передней нише шасси для остановки вращения колеса после уборки шасси.
SPINNER, An aerodynamic fairing attached to the fan of a turbofan engine.	ОБТЕКАТЕЛЬ, аэродинамический обтекатель, присоединенный к вентилятору турбовентиляторного двигателя.
STALL, A flight condition during which lift is destroyed due to slow airplane speed or attitude.	СВАЛИВАНИЕ, полетные условия, во время которых нарушено условие подъемной силы вследствие малой скорости самолета или пространственно положения.
STRAIN, Structural material deformed slightly due to the action and forces of stress.	ДЕФОРМАЦИЯ, РАСТЯЖЕНИЕ, небольшая структурная деформация материала под действием сил давления и взаимодействия.
SUPPLEMENTARY MODES, Additional digital flight control system modes that are available, used when deviating from normal modes.	ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫЕ РЕЖИМЫ, дополнительные цифровые режимы системы управления полетом, которые имеются в наличии и используемые, когда отклоняются от нормальных режимов.
SURGE, A sudden change in the airflow through the compressor resulting in the compressor not being able to compress the airflow.	ПОМПАЖ, резкое изменение давления воздушного потока через компрессор, вызывающее невозможность сжатия воздушного потока.
THRUST, The driving force of a jet engine.	ТЯГА, отталкивающая сила реактивного двигателя.
THRUST REVERSER, A mechanical component in the fan or exhaust section of the engine for eliminating forward thrust and decreasing the landing distance by deflecting fan air or exhaust gasses in the forward direction.	МЕХАНИЗМ РЕВЕРСА ТЯГИ, механический компонент в секции вентилятора или выхлопной секции двигателя для гашения передней тяги и уменьшения дистанции пробега с помощью отклонения воздуха вентилятора или выхлопных газов в направлении вперед.
TORQUE TUBE, A tubular component for transmitting twisting motion to the control surfaces.	ТРУБКА ПЕРЕДАЧИ КРУТЯЩЕГО МОМЕНТА, трубчатый элемент для передачи вращательного движения к поверхностям управления.
TURBINE, A rotating part of an engine which extracts kinetic energy from the combustion chamber gases. This energy is converted to turbine rotation which rotates the compressors and fan through a coaxial shaft.	ТУРБИНА, вращающаяся часть двигателя, которая получает кинетическую энергию из газовой камеры сгорания. Эта энергия преобразуется в движение турбины, которая вращает компрессоры и вентилятор на коаксиальном валу.
TURBOFAN, A jet engine in which the first set of blades is a large fan. An air driven fan/compressor used in air conditioning system.	ТУРБОВЕНТИЛЯТОР, реактивного двигателя, в котором первая ступень с лопастями является большим вентилятором. Воздух, приводимый вентилятором/компрессором используется в системе кондиционирования воздуха.

Список литературы

1.                                  Е.Н.Девнина «Большой англо-русский и русско-английский авиационный словарь» - Москва, «Живой язык», 2011.

2.                                  И.И.Матханова, Л.П.Ерохина «Техническая эксплуатация летательных аппаратов и двигателей» - Иркутск: ИВВАИУ, 2008.

3.                                  The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. Department of Transportation, 2008.

4.                                  http://www.airbus.com/

5.                                  http://www.boeing.com/

6.                                  http://gendocs.ru/v33147/boeing_technical_dictionary