ENGLISH GRAMMAR - Part I

• 1 слайд

  Articles/Nouns/Quantifiers
  Past Tenses
  Future Tenses
  Present Tenses
  -ing form or Infinitive
  Conditionals
  Degrees of Comparison
  Modals
  PART I Irene Russol
  
  Kokshetau state university after Sh. Ualikhanov
  Philology Faculty
  Department of Foreign Languages
  2015
  

• 2 слайд

  Articles/Nouns/
  Quantifiers
  

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  Contents:
  Indefinite article
  Definite article
  Zero article
  Articles in phrases and expressions
  Countable and uncountable nouns
  Quantifiers
  

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  Indefinite article:
  
  
  Whether we use “an” or “a” depends on the sound, not the spelling.
  The news is on TV in an hour.
  The news is on TV in a hour.
  Being in a film was a unique experience for me.
  Being in a film was an unique experience for me.
  
  Singular countable nouns (when we are not being specific or when we mention something for the first time)
  There’s a good film on TV tonight.
  WATCH OUT!
  

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  Definite article:
  The way we say “the” changes depending on the sound at the start of the next word.
  Before a consonant sound (the media, the USA, the programme) we pronounce it /ðǝ/.
  Before a vowel sound (the announcer, the actor, the editor) we pronounce it /ði/.
  We often use “the” when we are talking about something there is only one of.
  the sun, the sky, the moon, the Prince of Wales, the North Pole, the World Cup
  
  
  
  
  Singular countable nouns (when we are being specific)
  Where’s the DVD you were talking about?
  Singular countable nouns (when we are talking generally)
  The radio seemed amazing to people at first.
  Plural countable nouns (when we are being specific)
  I didn’t believe the rumours about the prime minister.
  Uncountable nouns (when we are being specific)
  I followed the advice the lawyer gave me.
  WATCH OUT!
  

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  Zero article:
  
  
  Plural countable nouns (when we are talking generally)
  Journalists often face dangerous situations.
  Uncountable nouns (when we are talking generally)
  News travels fast these days.
  

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  Articles in phrases and expressions (1)
  
  
  
  
  Time
  definite article: in the 1990s, in (the) summer,
  in the morning
  zero article: in 2012, in June, on Friday, at night
  People and work
  indefinite article: have a job, work as a…
  definite article: the queen, the principal, the president,
  the French
  zero article: become president, go to work, have work to do, he’s French
  Places
  definite article: the Alps, the Atlantic Ocean, the River Themes, the Earth, the Arctic, the USA, the UK,
  the Cyclades
  zero article: Mount Everest, Paris, America, Mars/Venus/ Jupiter etc, Oxford Street, Lake Superior, Crete
  Entertainment and sport
  definite article: the media, on the radio, play the guitar,
  go to the cinema, watch (the) TV
  zero article: listen to music, on television, play tennis/football
  

• 8 слайд

  Articles in phrases and expressions (2)
  
  
  
  
  Organasations
  definite article: the army, the police, the fire brigade
  Education
  definite article: go to the school (as a visitor), be in the first year
  zero article: go to school (as a student), be in Class 3B, maths
  Travel
  indefinite article: take a taxi, catch a/the bus
  definite article: on the bus
  zero article: on foot, go home, go by bus
  Health
  indefinite article: have a cold/headache/cough
  definite article: have (the) flu/measles
  zero article: have toothache
  Public buildings
  definite article: the bank, the tax office, go to the hospital/prison (as a visitor)
  zero article:go to hospital/prison /church (as a patient/prisoner/worshipper)
  

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  Articles in phrases and expressions (3)
  
  
  Speaker of American English do not usually use hospital without an article.
  US: The ambulance took Simon to the hospital.
  UK: The ambulance took Simon to hospital.
  US vs UK GRAMMAR
  

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  Countable and Uncountable nouns:
  
  
  WATCH OUT
  Most uncountable nouns are singular, but a few are plural. These include: clothes, scissors, jeans, spectacles, trousers, groceries, etc.
  With these words we use a plural verb.
  Oh, no! My new clothes are dirty.
  
  Some nouns are countable with one meaning and uncountable with another meaning.
  Do you think you could bring me a clean glass? (countable)
  We should make computer monitors out of recycled glass. (uncountable)
  
  Countable nouns
  Use a, the, some, many
  Use a singular or plural verb
  I want to be a journalist.
  Where is the newspaper?
  There are some good articles in the paper.
  How many channels do you get?
  Uncountable nouns
  Use the, some, much
  Use a singular verb
  Did you hear the news?
  Some important news has just come in.
  How much information do we have about it?
  Your advice was very useful.
  Common uncountable nouns: advice, coffee, furniture, glass, hair, homework, information, knowledge, luggage, money, news, paper, work
  

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  Quantifiers:
  WATCH OUT
  
  
  many
  countable nouns, usually in negative statements and questions
  There aren’t many programmes on TV that I find interesting.
  much
  uncountable nouns, usually in negative statements and questions
  My dad never shows much interest in the news.
  a lot of/
  lots of
  countable nouns and uncountable nouns in positive statements
  That film has won a lot of/lots of awards.
  What a lot of luggage you’ve got!
  a few
  countable nouns, means ‘some’
  There have been a few scandals in the paper recently
  a little
  uncountable nouns, means ‘some’
  They say that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
  few
  countable nouns, means ‘not many’
  Richard has few interests outside work.
  little
  uncountable nouns, means ‘not much’
  The police have little information about the robbery.
  

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  Quantifiers:
  
  
  The phrase ‘only a few’ means ‘not many’.
  The phrase ‘only a little’ means ‘not much’.
  
  There are only a few programmes on TV that I like watching.
  There is only a little sugar left, so get some when you go out.
  WATCHOUT
  

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  Past Tenses
  

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  Contents:
  Past Simple
  Past Continuous
  Past Perfect (simple)
  Past Perfect Continuous
  would
  used to
  be/get used to
  

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  Past Simple
  WATCH OUT! We can also use do/does in present simple statements for emphasis.
  You don’t like going by bus, do you? – Actually, I do like going by bus for short distances. The bus isn’t quicker than the train but it does stop right outside the factory.
  
  
  Single completed action
  Tom and I played a game of chess and he won.
  Habits in the past
  Did you collect stamps when you were younger?
  Permanent situations in the past
  A famous footballer lived in our house before we bought it.
  General truths and facts in the past
  Crosswords didn’t become popular until the 1930s.
  The main events in the story
  The referee blew the whistle and Simon passed the ball to James, who ran towards the goal.
  

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  16
  WATCH OUT!
  We can also use did in past simple statements for emphasis.
  Why didn’t you win your match yesterday? – I did win. Who told you I didn’t?
  We lost 5-0 but at least we did get into the final.
  

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  Past Continuous
  WATCH OUT!
  
  
  
  Action happening at a particular moment in the past
  After 5 o’clock I was reading a new book.
  Temporary situations in the past
  Greg was living in London at the time.
  Annoying past habits (usually with always)
  When we were young, my brother was always borrowing my toys.
  Actions in progress over a period of time
  Daniel was playing video games all morning yesterday.
  Two actions in progress at the same time
  Were Ulla and her friends playing Monopoly while we were playing Draughts.
  Background information in a story
  The sun was shining and the birds were singing. Lisa opened the window and looked out.
  

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  18
  WATCH OUT!
  When one action interrupts another action in progress, we use the past simple and the past continuous together.
  I was playing on my computer when it suddenly crashed.
  
  We do not use the past continuous for regular or repeated actions in the past
  When we were on holiday, we played volleyball every day.
  When we were on holiday, we were playing volleyball every day.
  
  We do not use stative verbs in continuous tenses.
  

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  Past Perfect Simple
  WATCH OUT!
  
  
  
  Situations and states before the past
  We’d lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to join.
  Completed actions before a moment in the past
  I‘d already bought the computer game when I saw it was cheaper in another shop.
  Completed actions where the important thing is the result at a moment in the past
  We didn’t feel like playing Scrabble because we had just finished a long game on Monopoly.
  

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  20
  WATCH OUT!
  There is always little or no difference in meaning between the past perfect and the past simple.
  We’d lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to join.
  We lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to join.
  After we have used the past perfect simple once, we often then use the past simple instead of continuing to use the past perfect.
  I had already had one flying lesson, which was great fun, and I knew immediately that I wanted to get my pilot’s licence.
  Phrases such as I was the first/second/third/etc time… are followed by the past perfect simple.
  It was the second time I’d been on a plane.
  

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  Past Perfect Continuous
  
  
  Action continuing up to a moment in the past
  When you saw us, we had been running for six miles – and we still had a mile to go.
  Action stopping just before a moment in the past
  Sarah looked tired because she had been exercising all morning.
  

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  would
  
  
  Past habits, particularly for the distant past
  When I was very young, my grandfather would take me to the park to play.
  WATCH OUT!
  We do not use would in questions or negative statements with this meaning. In negative statements, we can use would never.
  We would never play games together as a family when I was growing up.
  

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  used to
  WATCH OUT!
  To talk about a past state, we can use used to, but not would.
  We used to have a house that was right next to the park.
  We would have a house that was right next to the park.
  
  
  Past habits and states, particularly for the distant past
  My mother used to play a lot of squash before I was born.
  

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  be/get used to
  WATCH OUT!
  When we want to talk about the process of becoming familiar with something, we use get used to.
  I’m gradually getting used to being in a new team.
  
  
  A situation that is familiar or no longer strange
  I didn’t like being the goalkeeper at first but now I’m used to it.
  

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  Future Tenses
  

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  Contents:
  will/won’t and be going to
  Present tenses in time clauses
  Prepositions of time and place
  

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  Expressing the future:
  will/won’t and be going to
  
  
  Facts about the future
  The website will come online next week. (more formal)
  The website’s going to come online next week. (more informal)
  Predictions not based on present evidence
  In the future, everyone will have their own flying car. (more formal)
  In the future, everyone is going to have their own flying car. (more informal)
  Decisions made at the moment of speaking
  I’ve decided I won’t get a new DVD player just yet. (emphasising the decision) I’ve decided I ‘m not going to get a new DVD player just yet. (emphasising the intention)
  

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  Expressing the future:
  will/won’t and be going to
  WATCH OUT!
  With offers and suggestions in the question form, we do not use will with I and we. We use shall.
  Shall I help you with your physics homework?
  Will I help you with your physics homework?
  
  
  
  
  
  Offers and suggestions
  I’ll help you with your physics homework, if you like.
  Requests
  Will you help me with my physics homework?
  Most first conditional sentences
  If we get a computer, I’ll be able to surf the Internet.
  

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  Expressing the future:
  will/won’t and be going to
  
  
  Plans and intentions (which you have when you speak)
  I’m going to be a famous doctor one day!
  Predictions based on present evidence
  It sounds like the plane’s going to take off in a few minutes.
  

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  Expressing the future:
  present continuous
  
  
  Arrangements made before the moment of speaking
  Are they installing the new computers next week?
  

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  Expressing the future:
  present simple
  
  
  Timetables, arrangements and fixed events (which the speaker can’t change)
  The bus to the science museum leaves at 8 o’clock tomorrow morning.
  After if in first conditional and zero conditional sentences
  If technology continues to advance so quickly, what will life be like in a hundred years?
  After certain time expressions (see below)
  We’ll find out as soon as we get to the lab.
  

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  Expressing the future:
  future perfect simple
  
  
  Actions which are completed some time between now and a point in the future
  I’ll have finished my chemistry homework by the time you come home
  

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  Expressing the future:
  future continuous
  
  
  Actions in progress at a point in the future
  This time next week, I’ll be taking my biology exam.
  Habits or repeated actions at a point in the future
  In the future, we’ll all be flying around using jet-packs.
  

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  Expressing the future:
  future perfect continuous
  
  
  Actions in progress up to a point in the future
  At seven o’clock, I’ll have been doing my chemistry homework for three hours!
  

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  Present tenses in time clauses
  WATCH OUT!
  
  
  
  when
  It’ll be wonderful when scientists find/have found a cure for cancer.
  as soon as
  Let me know as soon as your new computer arrives/has arrived.
  before
  It’ll be several years before we send/we’ve sent a manned mission to Mars.
  after
  Let’s go to a pizza after we go/have been to the natural history museum.
  until / till
  The rocket won’t be launched until they do/have done a final check.
  while
  Think of me while you travel/are travelling to the Moon.
  once
  We’ll stop the petrol once we pass/we’ve passed Cambridge.
  

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  Prepositions of time and place
  36
  from Monday to Friday, on Monday, on my birthday/Easter Sunday/etc, in July, on September 20th, in 2012, in (the) summer, at three o’clock, in/for an hour, at the moment, in the morning/afternoon/evening, at night, in/on time, just in time for, in the beginning/end, at the age, at the weekend, next/last week
  turn right at a place, sit on sth, go in(to) a building, wait in(side) a building, arrive in London/Greece, arrive at the station, in/on/at the corner(of), come/go/walk/etc to a place, next to/beside/by the building, at/on the front of, in front of/behind the station, go out of a building, go towards the station, between the two buildings, opposite the station
  US vs UK GRAMMAR
  Speaker of American English do not always use on before days of the week.
  US: We’ve got a biology test Monday/on Monday.
  UK: We’ve got a biology test on Monday.
  Speaker of American English often say “Monday through Friday”
  US: I’m going to be on a field trip Monday through Friday.
  UK: I’m going to be on a field trip from Monday to Friday.
  Key prepositions of time
  Key prepositions of place
  

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  Present Tenses
  

• 38 слайд

  Contents:
  Present Simple
  Present Continuous
  Present Perfect (simple)
  Present Perfect Continuous
  Stative Verbs
  

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  Present Simple
  WATCH OUT! We can also use do/does in present simple statements for emphasis.
  You don’t like going by bus, do you? – Actually, I do like going by bus for short distances. The bus isn’t quicker than the train but it does stop right outside the factory.
  
  
  Current habits
  Toby walks to work.
  To talk about how often things happen
  Angela doesn’t visit us often.
  Permanent situations
  Carlos works in a travel agent’s.
  States
  Do you have an up-to-date passport?
  General truths and facts
  Poland is in European Union.
  

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  Present Continuos
  WATCH OUT!
  
  
  
  Action happening now
  Mike is driving to work at the moment.
  Temporary series of action
  Taxi drivers aren’t stopping at the train station because of the roadwalks.
  Temporary situations
  Are they staying in a hotel near the Olympic stadium?
  Changing and developing situations
  Holidays abroad are becoming increasingly popular.
  Annoying habits (usually with always)
  Dad is always cleaning the car when I want to use it.
  

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  Present Perfect Simple
  WATCH OUT!
  
  
  
  Situations and states that started in the past and are still true
  She’s had her motorbike for over six years.
  A series of actions continuing up to now
  We‘ve travelled by taxi, bus, plane and train - all in the last twenty-four hours..
  Completed actions at a time in the past which is not mentioned
  Have you ever flown in a helicopter?
  Completed actions where the important thing is the present result
  I’ve booked the coach tickets.
  

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  42
  WATCH OUT!
  Phrases such as It’s the first/second/etc time… are followed by the present perfect simple.
  It’s the second time I’ve been on a plane
  US: We already saw the Sphinx.
  UK: We’ve already seen the Sphinx.
  US vs UK GRAMMAR
  Speaker of American English often use the past simple in situations where speakers of British English would use the present perfect simple.
  Speaker of American English use gotten as the past participle of the verb “get”, except when “get” means “have” or “possess”. Speakers of British English would only ever use “got”.
  US: We already gotten Dan a new backpack for his summer vocation.
  UK: We’ve already got Dan a new rucksack for his summer holiday.
  

• 43 слайд

  Present Perfect Continuous
  
  
  Action continuing up to the present moment
  We have been driving for hours. Can we have a break soon?
  Action stopping just before the present moment
  I’m out of breath because I’ve been running to get here in time.
  

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  44
  WATCH OUT!
  The present perfect continuous is often used with words and phrases like all day/week/year/etc, for/since/just/etc.
  We’ve been walking for hours and I need a rest.
  
  The present perfect continuous is not normally used with words ever and never.
  Have you ever flown in a helicopter before?
  Have you ever been flying in a helicopter before?
  
  Sometimes there is very little difference in meaning between the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous and sometimes there is difference in meaning.
  I have worked at the airport for four years.= I have been working at the airport for four years.
  I have read that book about cruise ships.= I have been reading that book about cruise ships. (I have not finished it.)
  

• 45 слайд

  Stative Verbs
  WATCH OUT!
  
  
  
  believe, imagine, know, mean, think, understand
  be, exist
  hate, like, love, need, prefer, satisfy, want
  hear, see, smell, sound, taste
  appear, look, resemble, seem
  belong to, consist of, have, include, involve, own
  thinking
  existence
  emotions
  the human senses
  appearance
  possession and relationship between things
  

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  46
  WATCH OUT!
  Some verbs (such as be, have, imagine, look, see, smell, taste, think) are stative with one meaning and non-stative with another meaning.
  Do you have your plane ticket with you? (state: possession)
  Are you having lunch at the moment? (action: eating)
  

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  -ing form or Infinitive
  

• 48 слайд

  -ing form or Infinitive / prefer, would rather, had better / Infinitives of perpose
  verb / noun / adjective phrase + full Infinitive
  verb + bare Infinitive
  verb + full Infinitive or –ing form with little or no change in meaning
  verb + full Infinitive or –ing form with a change in meaning
  prefer, would rather, had better
  Infinitives of perpose
  Contents
  

• 49 слайд

  verb / noun / adjective phrase + -ing form
  
  
  WACH OUT!
  Some of the verbs, nouns and adjectives can also be followed by an object before the –ing form
  I can’t stand people cheating in exams.
  When we put a verb after a prposition, we almost always
  use an –ing form.
  I’m interested in hearing more about that course.
  admit
  appreciate
  avoid
  can’t help
  delay
  deny
  detest
  discuss
  dislike
  enjoy
  escape
  face
  fancy
  feel like
  finish
  give up
  involve
  keep (on)
  mention
  mind
  miss
  postpone
  practice
  put off
  resist
  risk
  suggest
  understand
  

• 50 слайд

  verb / noun / adjective phrase + full Infinitive
  
  
  able
  afford
  agree
  appear
  arrange
  ask
  attempt
  beg
  choose
  decide
  encourage
  expect
  fall
  happen
  help
  hope
  manage
  offer
  plan
  pleased
  prepare
  pretend
  promise
  refuse
  seem
  tend
  want
  wish
  would like
  WACH OUT!
  Some of the verbs, nouns and adjectives can also be followed by an object before the full Infinitive
  I didn’t want to take the exam.
  My mum didn’t want me to take the exam.
  

• 51 слайд

  verb + bare Infinitive
  
  
  fill
  hear
  let
  make
  notice
  see
  watch
  WACH OUT!
  The verbs feel, hear, notice, see and watch can also be followed by the
  –ing form.
  We often use the bare Infinitive for a completed action(from start to finish)
  We often use the –ing form for an action in progress at the time.
  I heard Miss Jenkins tell Julie not to do that.(=I heard all of it)
  I heard Miss Jenkins telling Julie not to do that.(=I heard part of it)
  In the passive, hear, make and see are followed by the full Infinitive.
  Active: The teacher made me learn the poem.
  Passive: I was made to learn the poem.
  

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  verb + full Infinitive or -ing form with little or no change in meaning
  
  
  begin
  can’t bare
  can’t stand
  continue
  hate
  intend
  love
  prefer
  start
  

• 53 слайд

  verb + full Infinitive or -ing form
  with a change in meaning
  
  
  consider
  forget
  go on
  imagine
  learn
  like
  mean
  regret
  remember
  stop
  teach
  try
  

• 54 слайд

  prefer, would rather, had better
  
  
  expressing general preference
  I prefer biology to history.
  I prefer reading English texts to speaking in English.
  expressing specific preference(on this occasion)
  I’d prefer to have the lesson on Wednesday rather than([to] have it) on Tuesday, if that’s possible.
  expressing general or specific preference
  I’d rather have the lesson on Wednesday than(have it) on Tuesday, if that’s possible.
  expressing general or specific preference
  (about someone else)
  I’d rather you didn’t sit next to Brian.
  giving advice
  You’d better ask your parents if you can come on the school trip.
  WACH OUT!
  We don’t usually say I don’t prefer… We use I prefer not to…
  I prefer not to have music on when I’m studying.
  prefer + noun/-ing+ to + noun/-ing
  would prefer + full infinitive + rather than(+ bare/full infinitive)
  would prefer +bare infinitive+ than(+ bare infinitive)
  would rather+sb +past simple/past continuous
  had better+ bare infinitive)
  

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  Infinitives of purpose
  
  
  I went to university to avoid getting a job!
  I went to university in order to avoid getting a job!
  I went to university so as to avoid getting a job!
  WACH OUT!
  We can also express the same idea using so(that)
  I went to university to avoid getting a job!
  When a negative purpose we don’t normally use the
  full infinitive on its own.
  I went to university in order not to get a job!
  I went to university so as not to get a job!
  I went to university not to get a job!
  
  
  
  

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  Verbs taking gerund or to-infinitive with a change in meaning
  
  
  Forget
  Something slips your memory and
  the action doesn’t take place:
  I totally forgot to turn off the cooker.
  The action is forgotten after it takes place:
  She forgot sending the message and sent it again.
  Remember
  To mean the remembering comes before the action described: Remember to buy a TV guide on your way home (first remember, then buy it)
  To recall a past event:
  I remember going to the bank, but nothing after that (I remember that I went there).
  Mean
  To say that we intend(ed) to do something:
  He means to phone you next week.
  To say that something involves doing something else:
  If we want to get there by 12.00, that means getting up early.
  Stop
  Pause temporarily for some purpose: He stopped to eat a couple of sweets (made a pause and ate sweets).
  Finish, cease doing some action: She stopped buying glossy magazines (she doesn’t buy them any longer).
  try
  Make an attempt, make an effort:
  Let’s try to boost sales this year.
  Do something and see the results, do something as an experiment:
  Try restarting the computer.
  

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  Conditionals
  

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  Contents:
  Zero conditional
  First conditional
  Unless, in case, as/so long as, provided (that)
  Second conditional
  Third conditional
  Mixed conditionals
  Inverted conditionals
  

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  Zero conditional:
  
  
  If you have faith in something, you believe in something you cannot prove.
  General or scientific facts and definitions
  

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  First conditional:
  WATCH OUT!
  We can also use may, might, can, could, shall, should, ought to, have to instead of will, depending on the meaning.
  If you have a birthday party, you might get loads of cool presents!
  We can also use should+bare infinitive instead of present simple. This suggests the situation is possible, but unlikely to happen.
  If you should bump into Alex at the concert, you’ll be able to get a lift home.
  We can also use a form of the first conditional to give instructions about real or likely situations in the present or future. This is: if+a present tense, imperative.
  If you decide to have a birthday party, tell me.
  
  
  
  
  If you have a birthday party, you’ll get loads of cool presents!
  If you’re working till half past six, we’ll have dinner at about eight.
  If you have revised properly, you won’t have any problems in the test next week.
  Real or likely conditions in the present or future and their results in the present and future
  

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  unless, in case, as/so long as, provided (that):
  
  
  I’ll be there at six unless I get delayed. (=except if I get delayed /if I don’t get delayed)
  Let’s take our wellies in case it’s muddy. (=because it might be muddy)
  As long as I’m happy, my parents don’t care what job I do.
  As long as I’m happy, my parents don’t care what job I do.
  Provided (that) I’m happy, my parents don’t care what job I do.
  unless
  ‘except if’ or ‘if…not’
  in case
  ‘because he/she/it/etc might’
  as/so long as
  ‘if’ or ‘only if’
  provided (that)
  ‘if’ or ‘only if’
  

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  Second conditional:
  
  
  WATCH OUT!
  We can also use might or could instead of would, depending on the meaning.
  (Note: could often means would be able to)
  If we were older we could go on holiday on our own.
  We can also use could in the if clause. Here, it means was/were able to.
  If I could drive, I’d buy a car.
  Impossible, unlikely or hypothetical conditions in the present or future and their results in the present or future
  If you had a beard, you would look just like Charles Dickens!
  If you were flying to Pio, would you get there much quicker?
  Advice
  If I were you, I would think very carefully about my future. (more formal)
  If I was you, I’d have a party at the weekend! (more informal)
  

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  Third conditional:
  WATCH OUT!
  We can also use might , could or should instead of would, depending on the meaning.
  If I had done some revision, I might /could /should have
  passed the exam.
  
  
  
  If you had worn a fake beard, no one would have known who you were! (=You didn’t wear a fake beard, so people knew who you were.)
  If she’d been wearing her new glasses, I would have noticed them. (=She wasn’t wearing her new glasses, so I didn’t notice them. )
  Hypothetical conditions in the past and their results in the past
  

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  Mixed conditionals:
  
  
  hypothetical past condition and a present result
  If I had listened to my parents, I wouldn’t be in so much trouble now. (=If I didn’t listen to my parents, so I’m in lots of trouble now.)
  hypothetical present condition and a past result
  If I had a mobile, I would have called you last night. (=I don’t have a mobile, so I didn’t call you last night)
  

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  Inverted conditionals:
  
  
  More formal form of the first conditional (with should)
  Should the situation worsen, the United Nations is prepared to send in a peacekeeping force.(=If the situation should worsen…)
  More formal form of the second conditional
  Were the situation to worsen, the United Nations would be prepared to send in a peacekeeping force.(=If the situation were to worsen…)
  More formal form of the third conditional
  Had the situation worsened, the United Nations would have been prepared to send in a peacekeeping force.(=If the situation had worsened…)
  

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  Inverted conditionals:
  
  
  US vs UK GRAMMAR
  When second and third conditionals in informal conversation, speakers of American English sometimes use would or would have in the if clause. This is very unusual in British English.
  US: How would you feel if this happened/would happen to you?.
  UK: How would you feel if this happened to you?
  US: I would have felt awful if that had happened/would
  had happened to me.
  UK: I would have felt awful if that had happened to me.
  WATCH OUT
  For all conditional sentences(first, second, third, mixed, inverted), when the condition comes before the result it is usually followed by a comma. When the result comes first, no comma is necessary.
  If I had a mobile, I would have called you last night.
  I would have called you last night if I had a mobile.
  In conditional sentences, modals(will, would, could, etc) are sometimes followed by a continuous infinitive.
  We’d still be waiting if you hadn’t turned up.
  

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  Degrees of
  Comparison
  

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  Contents:
  Comparatives
  Superlatives
  So , such, enough, too
  

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  Comparative and superlative adjectives:
  
  
  regular adjectives with one syllable
  black
  + -er
  blacker
  + -est
  blackest
  regular adjectives with one syllable (ending in vowel + consonant)
  thin
  double final letter + -er
  thinner
  double final letter + -est
  thinnest
  regular adjectives with two syllables
  (ending in -y)
  funny
  replace –y with –er
  funnier
  replace –y with –est
  funniest
  regular adjectives with two or more syllables
  intelligent
  more/less + adj
  more intelligent
  most/least + adj
  most intelligent
  irregular adjectives/ quantifiers
  good
  bad
  far
  little
  much
  many
  better
  worse
  farther/further
  less
  more
  more
  best
  worst
  farthest/furthest
  least
  most
  most
  

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  Comparative and superlative adjectives:
  
  
  WATCH OUT!
  Regular adjectives with two syllables can often also form the comparative and superlative like adjectives with one syllable.
  clever – cleverer – the cleverest
  Adjectives with one syllable that end in –e add –r and –st.
  white – whiter – the whitest
  Remember that comparative forms are often followed by than.
  Crime is a much bigger problem in this country than in many other countries.
  Remember that superlative forms are often preceded by the.
  Our local police force is the best in the country.
  Comparative
  To compare things or people that are different
  The crime rate in this area is higher than in other parts of the country.
  Superlative
  To compare one member of a group of people or things with the whole group
  The robbery was the biggest in the bank’s history.
  

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  Comparative and superlative adverbs:
  
  
  badly
  early
  far
  fast
  hard
  late
  often
  near
  soon
  well
  worse
  earlier
  farther/further
  faster
  harder
  later
  more often
  nearer
  sooner
  better
  worst
  earliest
  farthest/furthest
  fastest
  hardest
  latest
  most often
  nearest
  soonest
  best
  irregular adverbs
  

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  Comparative and superlative adverbs:
  
  
  Comparative
  To compare actions that are different
  Lock your door more carefully next time and maybe you won’t get burgled!
  Superlative
  To compare actions of one member of a group of people or things with the whole group
  Only the criminal who ran fastest managed to escape from the police.
  

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  So:
  WATCH OUT!
  The word that is not usually necessary to introduce the second clause.
  The crime rate is so high people are very frightened.
  The word so has a number of other uses. Try not to get confused between them.
  The crime rate is so high that people are very
  frightened.
  I saw that burglar leaving the house, so I called
  the police.
  
  
  To show the result of a situation or action
  The burglar was so clever that no one could catch him.
  Jane took the money so quickly that no one saw her.
  There was so much money that the robber couldn’t carry it all.
  

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  Such:
  
  
  To show the result of a situation or action
  It was such a terrible crime that the man was sent to prison for life.
  The security guard had such good hearing that he heard the door open immediately.
  There is such a lot of crime here that the police can’t cope.
  

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  Enough:
  WATCH OUT!
  A common mistake to put enough before an adjective when the correct word is quite or fairly.
  It is quite/fairly dangerous around here so don’t go out alone.
  It is enough dangerous around here so don’t go out alone.
  
  
  To show the result of a situation or action where there is/isn’t the right amount/ /number of something
  There aren’t enough police officers on the streets to keep us safe.
  It wasn’t dark enough for the burglar to start working.
  Did the police respond quickly enough to help?
  

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  Too:
  WATCH OUT!
  We do not use too when we want to describe something we consider to be positive. Instead we use very, really or extremely.
  You were very /really /extremely lucky not to get caught.
  You were too lucky not to get caught.
  
  
  To describe something that is more than necessary and which has a negative effect
  The young man was too young to go to prison.
  We arrived too late for the start of the trial.
  We send too many innocent people to prison.
  

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  Modals
  

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  Contents:
  Modals: ability
  Modals: permission
  Modals: advice
  Modals: criticism
  Modals: obligation & necessity
  Modals: degrees of certainty
  

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  Modals: ability, permission, advice, criticism, obligation and necessity, degrees of certainty
  79
  All modals (will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must) and the semi-modal ought to have only one form.
  Modals are followed by the bare infinitive (simple or continuous) or the bare perfect infinitive
  eg: Toby should be very fit by now.
  Toby should have recovered by now.
  The semi-modals have to and need to change their form depending on person and tense.
  eg: The doctor said I had/needed to give up red meat.
  

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  Modals: ability
  
  
  WATCH OUT!
  We use be able to for the infinitive and other tenses.
  I’d love to be able to fit into these jeans again! (infinitive)
  I’ll be able to leave hospital in two weeks, apparently. (future)
  I’ve been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
  I can run a kilometre in ten minutes.
  We can meet at the gym tomorrow, if you like.
  I could do fifty press-ups with one hand when I was younger.
  If only I could quit smoking!
  I could have roasted the potatoes, but decided that boiling them was healthier.
  Expressing ability now or generally
  can
  Expressing decisions made now about future ability
  can
  Expressing ability in the past
  could
  Expressing ability in present, future or general hypothetical situations
  could
  Expressing ability in past hypothetical situations
  could + perfect infinitive
  

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  Modals: permission
  
  
  WATCH OUT!
  May is more polite than could, and could is more polite than can.
  We don’t usually use a modal to talk about past permission.
  I was allowed to wear a knee support during the match.
  I could wear a knee support during the match.
  However, we do use could to talk about past permission in reported speech.
  The coach said I could wear a knee support during the match.
  
  
  Asking for and giving permission now, for the future or generally
  may
  could
  can
  May/could/can I see the doctor, please?
  

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  Modals: advice
  
  
  Modals: criticism
  Asking for and giving advice now, for the future or generally
  should
  ought to
  You ought to/should cut down on the amount of red meat you eat.
  Criticising past behaviour
  should
  ought to
  (+perfect infinitive)
  He ought to/should have made more of an effort with his diet.
  

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  Modals: obligation and necessity
  
  
  Expressing obligation or necessity
  must / have to / need to
  I must/have to/need to pick up that prescription from the chemist on the way home.
  Expressing lack of obligation or necessity
  needn’t / don’t have to/ /don’t need to
  You needn’t/don’t have to/don’t need to pick up that prescription from the chemist as I’ll get it while I’m in town.
  Expressing past obligation
  had to
  I had to take the pills three times a day for two weeks.
  Expressing lack of past obligation
  needn’t(+perfect infinitive) /didn’t have to/
  /didn’t need to
  I needn’t have gone/didn’t have to go/didn’t need to go to the doctor.
  

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  Modals: obligation and necessity
  WATCH OUT!
  There is usually no difference in meaning between must and have to. However,
  we are sometimes more likely to use must for personal obligation (making our
  own decision about what we must do).
  We can also use will have/need to to express future obligation.
  You’ll have/need to be more careful about what you eat in future.
  
  It is unusual to use must for questions. We usually use have/need to.
  Do I have/need to take this medicine before every meal?
  
  Must cannot be used as an infinitive. Use to have to.
  I’d hate to have to have injections every day.
  I’d hate to must have injections every day.
  
  Mustn’t and don’t/doesn’t have/need to have different meanings.
  You mustn’t do that! (Don’t do that!)
  You don’t/doesn’t have/need to do that.
  (You can do that if you want to but it’s not necessary.)
  
  Needn’t(+perfect infinitive) always refers to an action that happened.
  Didn’t have to and didn’t need to can refer to actions that did or didn’t happen.
  I needn’t have gone to the doctor. (I went but it wasn’t necessary.)
  I didn’t have/need to go to the doctor because I suddenly felt better. (I didn’t go.)
  I didn’t have/need to go to the doctor but I went just to be on the safe side.(I did go.)
  
  Be careful with the verb need. It can also take the –ing form.
  I need to sterilise this syringe.
  This syringe needs sterilising.
  
  
  
  
  
  84
  

• 85 слайд

  Modals: degrees of certainty
  
  
  Expressing certainty (or near certainty) about now or generally
  must
  can’t
  couldn’t
  That must be the district nurse at the door.
  These can’t/couldn’t be the pills; they’re the wrong colour.
  Expressing certainty (or near certainty) about the past
  must
  can’t
  couldn’t
  (+ perfect infinitive)
  She must have been in a lot of pain.
  His leg can’t/couldn’t have been in plaster for two years!
  Expressing probability about now, the future or generally
  should
  ought to
  You ought to/should feel better in a few days, as long as you get lots of rest.
  Expressing probability about the past
  should
  ought to
  (+ perfect infinitive)
  The bruise ought to/should have disappeared days ago. I wonder why it didn’t.
  Expressing possibility about now, the future or generally
  could
  may
  might
  You should talk to your doctor first because that diet could/may/might be dangerous.
  Expressing possibility about the real past
  could
  may
  might
  (+ perfect infinitive)
  That could/may/might have been the doctor who rang earlier while we were out.
  Expressing possibility about a hypothetical past
  could
  might
  (+ perfect infinitive)
  It’s a good thing you went to the doctor or you could/might have become quite ill.
  

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  Bibliography
  
  
  
  
  . Malcolm Mann, Steve Taylore-Knowles. “Grammar & Vocabulary”, Destination B2, MACMILLAN, 2009
  Gordon E.M., Krylova I.P. “A Grammar of Present-day English”. Practical Course. – М: КДУ, 2009
  Martin Hewings “Advanced Grammar in Use” - Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  Richard Syde and Guy Wellman “Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency” – Longman, 2006.
  Ron Cowan “The Teacher’s Grammar of English”, a course book and reference guide. – Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. – М.: Изд-во «ЮНВЕС», 2008.
  
  
  

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  Thank you!
  
  Questions!?
  And thoughts…
  
  Contact:
  E-mail: [e-mail]
  
  

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Destination B2: Grammar and Vocabulary has been designed for students preparing to take any examination at B2 (Vantage) level on the Council of Europe's Common European Framework scale. The book provides presentation and practice of all the key grammar, vocabulary and lexico-grammatical areas required for all main B2 level exams, eg Cambridge FCE. There are 28 units in the book, with alternating grammar and vocabulary units.