Конспект лекций по политологии на английском

Lectures on the subject of

"POLITICAL SCIENCE"

for students of all disciplines

Contents

Evaluation criteria	3
Lecture 1. Object and methodology of Political Science	5
Lecture 2. Basic stages of world political thought development	16
Lecture 3. Theory of political power	25
Lecture 4. Political system of society	36
Lecture 5. A state as an institution of political system	47
Lecture 6-7. Political parties and party systems	60

EVALUATION CRITERIA

OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FOREIGN STUDENTS OF

ALL THE SPECIALITIES OF THE DISCIPLINE "POLITICAL SIENCE"

The main role in the the evaluation of the studies quality via the establishment of the educational achievements level are the personality results of the cognitive activity that reflect the standard for all the specialities theoretical and practical competences, acquired by the students during the mastering of the discipline "The political science".

Based on the volume and the depth of the obtained results, the degree of independence in the execution of the tasks, ability to use the knowledge in the new situations there are the levels of the educational achievements of the students that are evaluated on the 100-point scale according to the requirements of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). Every next level contains requirements to the previous, and also adds new descriptions (table 2).

The criteria of the evaluation of the discipline are worked out on the basis of the educational program of the discipline "The political science" which contents meet the requirements of the EСТS according to which a single point system of the evaluation of the knowledge of the students was created. The distribution of points of the discipline and evaluation scale are given in the tables 1, 3.

Table 1

GRADING SCALE

Score on the 100-point scale	Mark ECTS	NATIONAL SCALE MARK
Score on the 100-point scale	Mark ECTS	Examination, Pass-fail grading examination	Pass-fail examination
90-100	A	excellent	pass
82-89	B	very good
74-81	C	good
64-73	D	satisfactory
60-63	E	sufficiently
35-59	FX	Poor grade	fail
0-34	F	Poor grade	fail

Table 3.

Distribution of the points received by the students:

Modular control-1					Amount points given for the MС-1	Modular control-2				Amount points given for the MС-2	Amount points given for the Semester
Current activities						Current activities
Unit I		Unit II		Written test		Unit III		Unit IV	Written test		100
25 points				25	50	25 points			25	50

6	6	6	6			8	8	8

Table 2 Distribution of the points and description of the evaluation criteria by the forms of the academic work

№	Forms of the academic work		Points			Notes
		Auditorium work (maximum -30 points)				During the seminar every student can receive from 0 to 6 (8) points that dependes on the level of complexity and amount of hours devoted to this topic. During the seminar the students can get the maximum number of points making a report or a library-research paper, giving a correct answer to the question or test, taking an active part in the seminar.
1.	Answer during the class		6 (7-8) " excellent "	These points are received by the student if he demonstrates the deep understanding of the material, uses the framework of categories and concepts within the bounds of the questions expertly and correctly, recounts the material sequentially, coherently and logically, argues his ideas, uses the basic and additional literature (monographs, magazines, original sources, and others like that) during the preparation. If he has an imaginative approach to decide the issue.
			5 (5-6) "good"	These points are received by the student if he: - is verse in the questions, but his answers are not complete and not enough concrete; - feels difficulties in the use and explanation of the scientific questions and categories within the bounds of the questions; - commits the insignificant errors and inaccuracies, but recounts the material coherently and logically, uses the basic and additional literature.
			4 "satisfactory"	These points are received by the student if he knows the basic material insufficiently, commits the errors defining the political processes, can`t analyse them consistently, deeply, with the help of the necessary literature.
			1-3,5 – "poor grade"	These points are received by the student if: • he knows the material badly, commits the inaccuracies, demonstrates the rudimentary knowledge answering the questions; • he is inconsistent in the terms and concepts;  there is no personal opinion and conclusion.
			0 points	The the student doesn`t receive points if: • he doesn`t know the material at all; • he gives the erroneous answers to the questions; • he doesn`t know the framework of categories and concepts ;  there is no logic in the exposition of the material.
	Additional points		0,5 points 3 poits maximum	The student makes an apt addition, Prepares an additional report, library-research paper
		Module test – (maximum – 25 points)
2.	Module test	25 test questions: 1 points for every right answer; or 2 open questions (questions that require the detailed answers).			"excellent" 25-24 points – it is the mark that indicates that the student got the high knowledge, skill and ability level of the discipline, he can carry out the difficult theoretical and practical tasks without assistance; "very good" 23-20 points – it is a result above the average, but there are some small shortcomings; "good" 19-17 points – it is the mark that indicates that the student`s theoretical and practical level of attainment satisfies the educational program requirements of the discipline, but there are some fundamental defects in his work; "satisfactory" 16-14 points – it is an average result, there are fundamental defects; "sufficiently" 13-12 – it is the result that satisfies the minimum knowledge, skill and ability requirements of the discipline; "poor grade" 10-0 – it is the result that doesn`t satisfy the minimum knowledge, skill and ability requirements of the discipline;

LECTURE: THE OBJECT AND METHODOLOGY OFPOLITICAL

SCIENCE

Outline

1. Notion of politics. Politics as a social phenomenon 2. Political Science as a science and an educational discipline

3. Methods and functions of Political Science.

Point № 1.

The study of that or other science always begins with determination of whatthis science studies, that is: what objectof its research is? What methods areused init? And why is the study of this science important?

Political Scienceis ascience about politics. Tounderstand its object it is necessaryto find out the essence of the notion "policy". The term "policy" comes from the ancient Greekword "polis" (a city state), politeia (constitution), politike (art of governing), politicas(statesman), polites (citizen).

As we can see the notion "politics"liesin the basis of political science .Therefore, at first it is necessary to find out what the politics is. What is the modern understanding of politics? And what is the proper definition of this complex phenomenon?

Politics- (from Greek polis – city – state and politicosderived from it) is everything, related to the city – (the state, citizen, governing and so on).

There is an opinion that this term expanded under the influence of Aristotelian work about the state, rule (governing) and government named "Policy". Up to the end of the nineteenth century political knowledge was traditionally considered as a study about astate that is about power of institutional, state level. However, the development of political thought and ideas about a state led to the establishment of thescience asan isolated phenomenon in relation to political philosophy and Political Science. The ideasof politics have broadened considerably, and understanding of politics has outlined as acomplicated problem and become an object of various interpretations. Presently,there are many of them. We will name some of them.

Ø Politics can be viewedas relations, that include a consent, submission, domination, conflict and fight between groups, classes, nations, social layers, strata and separate people (domestic policy) and states (foreign policy) concerning the conquest or attainingof power, its maintenance, organization and use.

Ø Policy is a course, a direction on the basis of which decisionare made and accepted, measures are taken onthe formation and implementation of different tasks. For example, "international policy of government "but at the same time "a trade policy ofa firm".

Ø Politics is a concrete spherewhere separate people and political institution (grouping) and social groups fight for attainingthe state authority. In this case we say: to "deal with politics", or, even, "keep off politics".

Ø Politics is a wider phenomenon, namely, as the art of governing people in a society, organization of citizens life distributing and redistributing resources, sustaining order, keeping an internal and external peace or, vice versa war actions, control of society and man.

Ø Politics is a science that includes theoretical achievement different political documents, methodological basis of politics;

It is difficult to define the meaning of the notion "politics" becauseof its ambiguity. But we are going to define the term according toPolitical ScienceEncyclopedic Dictionary «politics – it is the organizational, regulative and controlling sphere of society, within the limits of which social activity is implemented, directed mainly on the achievement, keeping and realization of power by individuals and social groups for the sake of realization of one’sown needs and necessities»

Politics in society always expresses and represents definite public interests.Interests – are objectively conditioned reasons of activity of a person,a socialgroup, a societyin the whole, directed on achievement of the goal. Political interests have direct or mediated relation to power for achieving certain goals: satisfaction of material necessities, raising welfare, stabilization of society, providing measures forsafety and freedom of a person, realization of one's own power ambitions, and decision of social necessities, raisingprestige and so on.

A political interest is regarded as an interest of individuals and social groups in the form that has the inductiveforce for a society. The common notionis mostly the necessity of keeping unity and integrity of a society, development of a person as a free, unique creature.

Consequently, politicsisthe display of interests of individuals, social groups, their collision and opposition, secondly it is the method of definite subordination of these interests, more meaningful and obligatory.

If in primitive societies politicsserves asan instrument of power

realizationsatisfying the interests of dominant groups, in the modern civilized society it isthe instrument of concordance of interests, their submission to more general: national interests and interests of international associations and organizations.

The awareness of political interests by socialgroups makes them the agents of policy. The agents of policy are persons and stratum as well asestablishments and organizations created by them that take active, conscious part in political processes.

The objects of policy are allphenomena of political and public life, on which the activity of subjects of policyis directedThe elements of political, economic, legal,cultural and spiritual subsystems of society, stratum and individualscan be an integral part of these objects.

Power is an organic fundamental "principle" of policy. This axiom finds the embodiment in such determination: policy implies actions, directed at power, its capture, maintenance and use (Weber). Any variety of political activity in any case concerns imperious relations.

"Imperious quality" of policy is specified through organizations and institutionsin which power is incarnated and materialized. Institutional interpretations of policy are taken out of the state activity as the most important institution of policy.

Thus, we can outline the structure of policy.

STRUCTURE OF POLICY

Ø Political interest is the primary cause, the realized source of political conduct;

Ø Political relationsare interconnectionsand interaction of subjects of policy and power;

Ø Political organizationare theinstitutes that reflect public power as the centersof management and regulation of public processes ;

Ø Political consciousness is the orientation either on preserving a given political system, power, or on its destabilization and change;

Ø Political activity is directed on the change or preserving the existing political relations.

What functions are executed by policy?

Ø integrationof different spheres of public life, providing of integrity and stability of a society;

Ø expressionof interests of social forces and layers as well as separate

citizens;

Ø managementand guidance by political and public processes on behalf of most influential layers and groups of the population and (or) a society on the whole;

Ø exposureand consideration of socio-political conflicts, their settlement by civilized methods and ways;

Ø socializationof a person, including his/her complex environment of public relations;

Ø providinginheritance and renewal of society and human being development.

Thus, in the most general and universal view policy is a special type of a human’s activity, related with realization of power. These are the relations which occur and exist between groups of people or some individuals concerning a state power.

Now we see that "policy" has a few determinations of notions , each of them represents the essence of this notion. You can use either of them.

Point №2

Political Science as a science and an educational subject.

Policy is intertwined with history of humanity and is its component since that moment, when humanity exceeded the primitive stage. Every individual facespolitical phenomena in some ways. Exactly by this universal value the interest to policyis stipulated.

Many social sciences were and are engaged in the study of politics: sociology, theory of state and law, political economy and others. The necessity to establish a separate branch of knowledge to research politics was quitereasonable: the value of a state in the economic and public life was growing, political activity of masses was rising, new political parties and election laws were emerging at the beginning of the 20^th century.

Political Science is shaped in the second half of the ХІХ century, when it acquires the outlines of the independent field of knowledge. Approximately at this time Political Science is becoming an independent educational discipline with establishment of educational and scientific centers. Thus,London School of Economy and Political Sciences was founded at London university at the end of the XIX century. In 1857 in the Colombian university was opened first in history of America department of Political Science. Later the example of the Colombian university was widespread in Elscomou, Harvard, Prinstonscomou and other universities of the USA. In 1903 American association of Political Sciences was founded. By especially rapid rates Political Science in the USA and countries of the West began to develop after the second world war. In it the International colloquium on the questions of Political Sciencewas largely instrumental, which happened in 1948 in Paris on initiative of YONESCO. On him a document, that defined maintenance of Political Science and its basic problems, was accepted. It was it is decided, that the basic problems of research and study of Political Science are: 1) political theory (including history of political ideas); 2)політичні institutes; 3) parties, groups, public thought; 4) international relations.

Strictly speaking, the International Colloquium in Paris lined the results of the protracted discussion of political scientists on issues whetherPolitical Science is a general, integration science about policy in all its displays, which includes in itself political sociology, political philosophy, political geography and other political disciplines as its components or whether itunite a great number of Political Sciences. A colloquium took a decision to use the term «Political Science» in a singular. This was the way to identify Political Science as an independent scientific and educational discipline. In 1949 under an aegis YONESCO International Association of Political Sciencewas created, afterwards Political Scienceas educational discipline was introducedinto the programs of the leading universities of the USA and Western Europe. In the former Soviet Union and in Ukraine, in particular,there was no independent, autonomous science about policy, and its article of research was «distributed» between Social Philosophy, «Scientific Communism» and History of CPSS. Destruction of the soviet system resulted in liberation of space forPolitical Science (Political Sciences).

The key problems of modern Political Science include political power, its essence and structure; political systems and modes of contemporaneity; forms of ruling and state structure; political stability and political risk; party and electoral systems; political rights and freedoms of a man and a citizen; civil society and legal state; political conduct and political culture of personality; political communication and mass media ; religious and national aspects of policy; facilities and methods of settlement of political conflicts and crises; international political relations, geopolitics, political globalistics and others like that.

It has been generally accepted that the core of Political Science problematic is shaped by the processes of forming, functioning and distributing of state power, fighting for power, including influencing and participation in this fight, and also by the study of organizations that carry out power or affect it.

Thus, Political Science(Greek. politika— state and public affairs and logos — word, notion, study) is a science about policy, power and political processes.

Political Science has its specific object of research. It concerns cognition and theoretical comprehension of policy as a social phenomenon, internal mechanisms and conformities to the law, which manage different processes and phenomena in the political life of a society.

The significance of the term «policy», the possibility of different methods of its understanding results in the discussions aboutphenomena of Political Science as a subject. Researchers interpret this problem variously.

1. Politologyis ascience, that is traditionally engaged in research of a state, a party and other institutes, that carry out power in a society or affect it. As it is stated in the English-American dictionary of political analysis, to the present stage of its development thesubject includes «management at a national and local level; comparative (cross-national) analysis; policy and political conduct; political theory; public-administrative activity and organizational conduct; international relations». In this case Political Science is the only one of sciences about policy.The lack of such

«narrow interpretation» of Political Scienceis due to the actual objection of general science about policy, that integrate all political knowledge in the single system.

2. Political Science is a sole science about policy. However, it does not include all knowledge about this sphere of public life; only this which relies on exceptionally scientific, mainly empiric methods. The general theoretic disciplines that lean against the normative-valued approach such as Political Philosophy, Political Ethics, History of Political Ideas and others do not enter the content of Political Science. This point of view is presented by Charles Merriam, Harold Lassouell, PolLazarsfeld who are the supporters of behaviorirsts’ school). The division of political knowledge in two parts is a logical inheritance of behaviourist position: on the normative knowledge, related to the values and estimations, requirements and wishes, and on the strictly scientific knowledge based on facts. Such approach is criticized for contrasting these two types of knowledge and for the separation of normative theories from science. Some researchers disagree that «modern Political Science» broke off with political philosophy of the «past». Such «moral reaction» is presented in the works of Claude Levi-Stross, FilippBeneton, Alan Bloom, Robert Nozic, John Rols. In their opinion, political philosophy of Greeks, described by Aristotel and developed by the scientists of middle ages, was based on simple postulates:

v a manis a politicized animal for whomit is natural to live in asociety;

v «welfare» is the purpose of any society, but squabbles and antagonisms which are the roots of common life dominate in any society

v policy is the organized power which manages people and cares of commonwealth;

v Political Scienceis the one about the «correct management», and herein it approaches philosophy.

3. Political Scienceis a general, integral science about a policy in all its displays that includes all complex of sciences about a policy and its relationships with a man and society: Political Philosophy, Political Sociology, Political Psychology, and Theory of Political Institutes etc. Political Sciencein this valueis similar to Economics, Sociology, Philosophy and other integral sciences, that unite the proper complexes of knowledge about other spheres of vital functions. The wide vision of Political Science enables to estimate the degree of separate sub disciplines development, to fix specific importance, the real influence of other disciplines on the structure of scientific political knowledge. Simplicity of understanding is not the only advantage of a «wide interpretation» of Political Science, as well as a direct accordance of the ―political science‖ category to the value of this term - it is a general science about policy, but above all the issues it is orientation on integration of the most various political knowledge and, thus, on getting an integral picture of objects, that are explored.

Consequently, Political Scienceis a sole, integral science about policy, its cooperation with personality and society.

It is quite probable that so called ―wide‖ and ―narrow‖understanding of Political Science in the defined value does not conflict with each other making two «concentric circles» of accumulation of political knowledgerather, than antinomy between them. In the wide value Political Science contains all political knowledge, by submitting the complex of disciplines that study policy, while in a clearer value Political Scienceis related only to the specific group of conformities to the law of relations of social subjects concerning power and domination, exploring the special type of relations and cooperations between the dominant and the subjected, those who lead and those who are managed.

In the most general view Political Science is a field of knowledge about policy, laws of functioning and development of political life of a state and a society, that reflects the process of social group and personalities participation in the activity of political interests and political power manifestation.

The political sphere ofa society (political reality), all phenomena and processesarethe objects of Political Science. In the global society it is a political subsystem which cooperates with economic, social, ideological (spiritual-moral) subsystems.

The article of Political Science is mainly the phenomenon of political power, itslegal functioning and use in the state- organized society.

As well as every other science Political Science has the applied and theoretical value:

The applied Political Science studies the problems linked with:

а)the transformation of political reality, the analysis of ways and facilities of

action on political processes;

б)the study of public opinion, features of political orientation and political

conduct of different social forces.

Theoretical Political Scienceworks out scientific problems linked with: а) forming fundamental knowledge about political sphere and life;

б) explanation of political development processes ;

в)development of conceptual structure of Political Science, methodology

and methods of political researches.

Political Science as any other scienc hasits own categories:

Own categories:

Policy, Political power, Political relations, Political sphere, Political system, Political mode, Civil society, Political interests, Political party, Large and small social forces, Political culture, Political consciousness, Political ideology, Political pluralism, Political conflict, Political stability, Political activity.

Categories of other socio-economic and humanitarian sciences:

Society, Freedom, Power, State, Legal state, Public opinion, Democracy,

Dictatorship, Ideology, Culture, Opposition, Pluralism

Point № 3.

Methods and Function of Political Science

For any social science, especially for the one which is on the stage of its developmentcomplex of methods, approaches and analysis has its specific value. Every research in Political Science assumes a certain goal, and every researcher chooses the most effective way (method) of achievement of this purpose. In dependence on the concrete purpose of a research political scientistschoose different approaches and methods of analysis.

Methodical tool of Political Scienceis various and includes general theoretic, logic and empiric methods of research. The group of general theoretic methods of modern Political Science contains:

Methods of Political Science	Basic important issues	How policy is studied
Institutionalmethodimplies the study of institutes by means which a state power is carried out	Functioning and cooperation of political institutes: laws and rights, states, political parties and movements etc	Analysis of official structures and formal rules for decision making
Historicalmethodconsiders political phenomena in their successive (chronologic) development and exposes the ties between the past and the future;	On the political phenomenaand processes in time andspace	Analysis of political norms, relations, institutes changes in the context of the ties in the past, present and the future
Sociologicalmethod	Dependence of policy on social	Analysis of policy as a
providestheanalysis of policy "from the view of a society", finding social conditions of political phenomena, influence on the political system of relations.	factors: economy social structures, cultures and etc.	purposeful cooperation sphere ofsocial groupspursuing their interests
Behavioralmethodforesees the study of conduct of individuals and groups that requires explicit approach and verification (clarity of expression and clearness of determination of research procedure and, quality controls of knowledge);	On the personality measuring of policy, conduct of a separate person	Analysis of the person’s conduct systematically looked after, possibility of measuring his motivation
Psychological method considers a concrete individual, taking into account his family traits, social surroundings, subjective means of conduct, typical psychological motivations and role of subconsciousfactor in his conduct. (Z. Freud, K. Young)	On the subjective means of political conduct: motives, desires, passions and etc.	Analysis of individual qualities, character traits, unconscious psychical processes affecting the political conduct.
Structural-functional method– considers a policy as integrity, system with a complex structure, every element of which has the definite setting and executes the definite functions directed to satisfy necessitiesof the system;	«Social action» is taken as a unit of research which is understood as an aggregate of a complex of social action systems (conception of T. Parsons, R. Merton). Every individual is orientated on the generally accepted standards of conduct. The norms are incorporated in institutes that have a structure and functions directed on achievement of societystability.	Analysis of functional dependent elements of the political system: unity of powerinstitutes, conformity of their action (functioning) to the necessities of political subjects; exposure of a necessity in adaptation of the system to the changing environment etc.
Systemicmethod foresees the analysis of policy as a complex self- organized mechanism, that needs continuous cooperation with an environment through the "input" and "output" of the system;	On integrity of policy and character of its mutual relations with an external environment	Analysis of internal communications betweenthe segments a policy structure.

The resulted list testifies about the specific model ofPolitical Science as a subject which takes " an honored seat" in the complex of social-liberal subjects and educational disciplines, "present" in each of them.

General logical methods contain the analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction, abstracting and specification, combination of history and logical analysis, design, imaginary experiment, prognostications and others.

Empiric research methods are based on the receipt of initial information about policy or a political process. They cover the use of statistics, analysis of documents, questionnaire, game theory, supervisions etc.In the given time the value of empiric methods in Political Scienceis growing substantially, that is explained by the increase of necessity in objective knowledgeabout political reality. All political scientists and political leaders lean on concrete facts. Empiric material is needed for the complex study of political management and guidance by society, to research suchimportant problems s the state of public thought, the level of political culture in a society, for the analysis of different factors ofinfluence on different political processes.

In modern Political Science the experiment is widely used and is conducted in the form of a role -game. A political scientist by it reproduces an interesting political process (a meeting of parliament, political negotiations and others) and "plays" numerous variants of his development.

A large influence on the development of Political Science was produced by cybernetics. Political Sciencegot the status of an exact science due to a wide application of mathematical and statistic methods of analyses.

For example:

Communicative method allows developing the cybernetic model of political process, considering political structures as communication units, units of intercourse. Political cooperationsare treated as informative streams;the main of whichdeals with political decision and reaction on it by the agents of policy. A communicativemethod requires exposing properties of policy through the study of peoples’ intercourse that go into effect in political space.

Critical-dialectical method is oriented towards the critical analysis of policy, exposure of its self-contradictions, conflicts as the sourceof its self-development, the main force of political transformations. This method is widely used in the analysis of Marxismand Neomarxism policy (Y. Habermas, T. Adorno,

G. Marcouze), in the left liberal and social democratic thought, and also in a number of other ideological and political flows. Fruitfulness of this method is acknowledged essentially by all admirers of pluralism organization of society, because pluralism is based on the principle of contradictions, competitive activity of various ideas, valued orientations, political, economic and cultural institutes, individuals and groups. A critical-dialectical method is leading in such important sociological and Political Science discipline, as Conflictology.

Method of design consists in research of political processes and phenomena by development and study of their models. Different classifications of models are quitepossible. For example, measuring, descriptive, explanatory and prognostic models are selected on purpose. A necessity in this method arises when the analysis of the real political phenomenon is impossible, too expensive or requires much time. A model is the analogue of the real political object. It is possible to design a toolof any political system (for example, mechanism of realization of political power) or a process ( taking decisions or a separate fragment of functioning of the system ( its management), institutes, their elements or unions (a state, political mode), co-operation with other political systems (international relations) and others.

The detailed consideration of applied methods in Political Science demonstrates multidimensional and complicated approach of Political Science analysis that synthesizes sociological and actually philosophical approaches in combination with the methods adopted from other sciences.

Functioning and development of Political Science in the public life unites with implementation by it a number of the definite functions related not only to cognition of policy, but also with the real practical activity in the sphere of public power.

Political Scienceas any humanitarian science executes such functions:

1. Descriptive, the essence of which consists in the statement of facts of political reality, with the help of which it is possible to get an answer what this reality is.

2. Explanatory,which gives the possibility to understand the political phenomena, their origin, conformities to the law. An explanatory function gives an answer to a question: why exactly these but not other facts take place in political reality.

3. Prognosticfunction, which is applied to forecast political reality in the future (for example, about success on elections).

4. Instrumentalfunction which consists in development of definite projects for decision making to achieveconcrete political results;

5. Ideologicalfunction which helps to choose definite system of ideological values. It enables to understand how to evade somefalse, senseless valued orientations.

In addition it is possible to point out educational, methodological and other functions. The large value in forming political consciousness of people that join the sphere of imperious relations is taken by the function of socialization. It contributes to the integration of individuals in a political concord on the basis of the generally accepted standards of political conduct, promotes the level of competence and rationalizes their political conduct.

It is needed to admit that the value and role of those or other functions can change depending on concrete political terms, level of development of scientific knowledge, political priorities.

Political Science closely co-operates with many social, humanitarian sciences (Economic Theory, Sociology, Philosophy, Law, Ethics and others), its role in Ukrainian society grows, as the necessity in the fundamental study of the theory of policy is multiplied.

Political Science is complex science about policy in all its displays. It integrates and synthesizes the conclusions of other sciences about policy.

Political Science belongs to such sciences the acquaintance with which is included in the necessary complex of terms of personality shaping. To know the political structure of a society means to be able to oriented in the difficult chain of intercommunications of different sides of public life, which the state and political power is linked with.

Is it possible to speak about citizenship ofa man, if he/she does not know the constitution of the country, human rights, authority and function of different state bodies?

The study of Political Science allows to join such important components of civil culture, as:

- scientific views of relations between the citizens, a citizen and a society;

- testing oneself in the civil relations, methods of activity, practical abilities, models of civil conduct, approved by a society;

- the civil valued orientations and, above all , values, that are pointed by the Constitution of Ukraine, including attitude to people, their rights and freedoms as a highest value, civil peaceand consent;

- experience of independent decision of various problems, that arise in the private and public life of citizen as a subject of a civil society.

LECTURE: BASIC STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF WORLD

POLITICAL THOUGHT

Outline

1.Political thought of the ancient world

2. Political thought the Middle Ages

3. Political doctrines of the Renaissance and Enlightenment

Point № 1.

The history politics an opinion to take seats of special importance place in political science, so far as high end science to accumulate and to generalize experience to leave behind millenary, on millenary political science to rise only a little, much, century therefore.

The learning history political science indispensable for adequate understanding and conclusion with contemporaneous social and political problem. The theoretical knowledge about consistency with genesis and function political power and State, forming political relationship and institution under present-day conditions on rest on the progress extent political thought over a period stand together.

Politics an opinion to his roots in four and three millenary BC. To form the basis of her nucleation to underlie in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. On measure transformation primitive system in slave-holding and appearance state formation to arise first sprouts politics an opinion, how to pertain to society terms and state regime.

The first political ideas were of religious and mythological character. And only in the ninth century B.C. transition to rational view on the world in general and the state, in particular took place.

Sources which reached to our days are evidence of apologetically conception basing hierarchy structure society. In particular the thing "Instruction Ptahetepa" in Ancient Egypt and "the law tsar of Hammurabi" in Mesopotamia. They to have to make an attempt to stand regulatory basis under unlimited power rulers, to found on this on mystical on religious foundation.

In the first millennium B.C. with development of public production, that stipulated a definite jump in a spiritual culture, humanity undertakes the first steps to rational self-knowledge.

So, in Ancient India by a basic document which gave information as to the pictures rationalisms of policy, to take place a treatise "Arthashastra" ("The learning of use"). Their authors consider Kaytilia, the first on high dignitary for century BCE. The hold back from goal preservation caste, he to choose on the practical of use, how basis on principal principle political activities, that to meet to task strong power.

In Ancient China the post philosophical and political an opinion to take place Confucius. The Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-471 BCE) was one of the first thinkers to adopt a distinct approach to political philosophy. His philosophy was "rooted in his belief that a ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his subjects by his own example, and should treat them with love and concern." His political beliefs were strongly linked to personal ethics and morality, believing that only a morally upright ruler who possessed "de", or virtue, should be able to exercise power, and that the behavior of an individual ought to be consistent with their rank in society. He stated that "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son."

Confucianism represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His philosophy focused in the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world’s first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by ability instead of ancestry , wealth, or friendship . Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of Southeast Asia.

The still first in the direction of in Chinese political on opinion on the point of course Taoism. Taoism (Daoism) is a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the Tao Te Ching (Dào Dé Jīng; ascribed to Laozi ). The character Tao 道 (Dao) literally means "path" or "way". However in Daoism it refers more often to a meta-physical term that describes a force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt. All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct Way to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (wu wei), the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practise Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside." But its main motto is: "If one must rule, rule young" Most of Taoism's focus is on the undeniable fact that human attempts to make the world better actually make the world worse. Therefore it is better to do nothing, wu wei is exactly this.

Legalism is a pragmatic political philosophy synthesized by Han Fei. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", it upholds the rule of law and is thus a theory of jurisprudence .

A ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:

1. Fa (法 fǎ): law or principle.

2. Shu (術 shù): method, tactic, art, or statecraft.

3. Shi (勢 shì): legitimacy, power, or charisma.

Legalism was the chosen philosophy of the Qin Dynasty. It was blamed for creating a totalitarian society and thereby experienced decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment"

Political opinion of Ancient Greece is the bar period of development of political opinion of ancient world, especially its classic stage. A classic stage in history of development of political studies of ancient Greece is characterized by development of political thought, which development of empirical-theoretical approach and deepening of social analysis of political problems were instrumental in. On the first plan rational interpretation of the political phenomena goes out exactly. This stage is linked, foremost, with such his representatives, how Plato and Aristotle is.

The Greek philosopher Plato(428-328 BC), in his book The Republic, argued that all conventional political systems (democracy, monarchy, oligarchy and timarchy) were inherently corrupt, and that the state ought to be governed by an elite class of educated philosopher-rulers, who would be trained from birth and selected on the basis of aptitude: "those who have the greatest skill in watching over the community." This has been characterised as authoritarian and elitist by some later scholars, notably Karl Popper in his book

The Open Society and its Enemies, who described Plato's schemes as essentially totalitarian and criticised his apparent advocacy of censorship. The Republic has also been labeled as communist, due to its advocacy of abolishing private property and the family among the ruling classes; however, this view has been discounted by many scholars, as there are implications in the text that this will extend only to the ruling classes, and that ordinary citizens "will have enough private property to make the regulation of wealth and poverty a concern."

Subsequent development of political opinion of Ancient Greece is related to Aristotelem (384 - 322 B.C.).

In his book Politics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle(384-322BC) asserted that man is, by nature, a political animal. He argued that ethics and politics are closely linked, and that a truly ethical life can only be lived by someone who participates in politics.

Like Plato, Aristotle identified a number of different forms of government, and argued that each "correct" form of government may devolve into a "deviant" form of government, in which its institutions were corrupted. According to Aristotle, kingship, with one ruler, devolves into tyranny; aristocracy, with a small group of rulers, devolves into oligarchy; and polity, with collective rule by many citizens, devolves into democracy. In this sense, Aristotle does not use the word "democracy" in its modern sense, carrying positive connotations, but in its literal sense of rule by the demos, or common people. A more accurate view of Aristotle denouncing democracy was that it was described as mob rule, or ochlocracy

Of the most bright representatives of political opinion of Ancient to Rome the Mark was one Thulium Cicero (106- 43 B.C.).

Reason of origin of the state, after Cicero. Consists in the born necessity of people to live together and necessity of guard of own. Thus, by the purpose of the state Cicero counts providing of safety of citizens and free use of property.

Basic political credo at Cicero – slogan about reconciliation of the states. In his opinion, the state which is built from combination of the higher, middle and below states, look like on a melody, where and low, and middle, and high sounds are found in singing harmoniously, which a good musician manages.

That is determined the state, as a matter of property of all peoples. Marked that "peoples are not any union of the people collected together in some wise, and union of the people bound between itself by a consent in the questions of right and community of interests". Differently speaking, the state is the concerted legal intercourse of citizens.

Point № 2.

Influencing of ancient political an opinion was reflected foremost on the political studies of time of dark Ages and Revival. After disintegration of the slaveholding system in Western Europe there was feudal society.

Political part in the epoch of feudalism was acted by the clergy. It was large economic, political and ideological force. It happened to that subject to the condition large feudal division (The fifth and ten century) Catholic church, having a clear hierarchy and firm dogmas, had considerable influence on the all spiritual life of dark ages. It was not the exception also and political an opinion. Its development was mainly carried out by efforts of representatives of church.

The basic aspects of political opinion of the Middle Ages consisted in pulling out on the first plan of problems of correlation of secular and church power that found the display in the fight between the theology theories of political power and secular political doctrines and studies.

The boundaries of the early medieval period are a matter of controversy. It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354 – 430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, when the High Medieval period begins.

Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers. He is primarily a theologian and a devotional writer, but much of his writing is philosophical. His influence in the early period was profound (as it has been in practically all periods of the Christian church's history).

Augustine’s themes are truth , God, the human soul, the meaning of history, the state , sin and salvation. For over a thousand years there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority, which was as great as that of Aristotle. Some of his writing had an influence on the development of early modern philosophy (e.g. Descartes ).

Thomas Aquinas was the well-known representative of ideas of Christian doctrine (1226 - 1274). In the studies he adjusted the philosophical and political looks of Aristotelian to the necessities of church ideology, adopting at him a look on a man as on a creature political, interests of which must be inferior to state. At the same time the state exists only in order to care of the common blessing.

However Thomas Aquinas resolutely denied social equality and considered eternal class differences. Most members of society must work physically, only the minority is able to be engaged in mental work and handled.

A monarchy is the best form of state rule in Thomas Aquinas. Power of good and just monarch is to be the reflection of power of god in a world. He proclaims the necessity of absolute submission of society power to power spiritual, as achievement of celestial beatitude is a higher purpose and sense of existence of society, to result in which a church can only.

All these postulates underlay study under the name "Tomizm", which became foundation of doctrine of Catholic Church.

Point № 3.

Day the revival (Renaissance) is determined how the history process of ideological and cultural development is in eve early bourgeois revolutions. Its elements begin to turn out on the late stage of feudalism and are conditioned by his disintegration.

The revival pulled out on the first plan quite new political problems, which arose up together with the crisis of feudalism, expansion of rational thought, by development of a new structure of society.

These were the problems linked, at first, with a new vision of man, level of his freedom, right and duties, secondly, with access to power, as a circle of proprietors broadened that led to the increase of quantity individuals which could take part in acceptance of political decisions. The Italian thinker of Niccole Machiavelli was the most known and prominent representative of time of Revival (1469-1527). His of the well-known on "Sovereign". Also in the middle of wellknown to have works how on "The thought about first period Tita Livia" and "Florentine chronicle".

In his work The Prince, the Renaissance Italian political theorist Machiavelli put forward a political worldview which described practical methods for an absolute ruler to attain and maintain political power. His work is sometimes viewed as rejecting traditional views of morality for a ruler: "for Machiavelli, there is no moral basis on which to judge the difference between legitimate and illegitimate uses of power." It is from Machiavelli that the term Machiavellian is derived, referring to an amoral person who uses manipulative methods to attain power; his works have been studied and theories practiced by leaders including totalitarians such as Benito Mussolini, and Adolf Hitler, each of whom justified the use of brutality for purposes of state security. However, many scholars have questioned this view of Machiavelli's theory, arguing that "Machiavelli did not invent 'Machiavellianism' and may not even have been a 'Machiavellian' in the sense often ascribed to him." Instead, Machiavelli considered the stability of the state to be the most important goal, and argued that qualities traditionally considered morally desirable, such as generosity, were undesirable in a ruler and would lead to the loss of power.

Development of liberal arts and, in particular, social and political theories of New time, passes in the river-bed of the program beating back of conscious interests and looks of progressive layers of society.

This period presents by itself time of gradual stagnatsii of economic bloom of the Italian cities, and the center of economic development gradually moves to England, Golandii and, partly, to France.

Mushroom economic growth takes place in the second half of the XVI item in netherlands. In these terms the existent feudal relations are already unable to satisfy interests and queries of most social stratums. The given circumstances in reshti-resht were led to the first bourgeois revolution in Europe at the end of the XVI item

In this sense netherlands revolution was the first political appearance of a new public class – bourgeoisies.

In the second half of the XV item becomes the state of primary value also and England. She becomes the large colonial and auction state. It results in development of production which – rountouetsya on wage labour, that is on those public relations that are not peculiar to feudalism. The class of new proprietors, that gave birth, had interests in industry of enterprise. Economic activity, interests of the real practical life led this public layer, and not only in England, to the orientation on actual cognition of world, which leaned not against dogmas, and in opinion and practical experience. Exactly the given circumstances and laid down beginning to the methodological basis of development many, including liberal arts which political opinion of that time developed within the framework of.

The basis of rational thought was pawned by his prominent representative Frensis Bacon. He is the author of the known work "New Atlantida", which is social utopia and in which Bacon expresses the picture of the optimum mode of society. Socio-political looks Becona are enough moderate.

On an island under the name Bensalem (New Atlantida) there is distributing on rich and poor. Community to the island supports development of handicrafts and seaworthiness. Exceptional position occupies the concord of scientists, which has a deciding word in matters of guidance and management by society.

That is up to moral norms, any amoral wars which conduce to the breach of law zasoudgouyotsya on an island.

Criticism of social utopia Becona is not directed against the dominating public relations, and only on their perfection, cleaning from the negative phenomena which accompanied development of new capitalist production relations.

For development of political opinion of New time the idea of natural right became initial. Under natural rights were right to be at leisure in persuasions and actions, to own and dispose of own, to be even before a law, to have the guarantees from the self-will of authorities.

A Dutch lawyer, political thinker and historian Gougo Grotsiy, was one of those scientists, who tried to release political thought from theology. He acknowledges a right divine and right a still human. This approach from the point of view history terms of that time was a step ahead, which releases a man from hegemony of franchise right, that is given by a church.

The world view rationalism is the basis of political doctrine Grotsiya. To settle political conflicts a mind must. He is a supreme judge, and not divine providence.

Thomas Gobbs was the representative of authoritarian direction of political opinion of New time – the English philosopher.

Thomas Hobbes

In 1651, Thomas Hobbes published his most famous work, Leviathan, in which he proposed a model of early human development to justify the creation of polities, i.e. governed bodies. Hobbes described an ideal state of nature wherein every person had equal right to every resource in nature and was free to use any means to acquire those resources. He claimed that such an arrangement created a ―war of all against all‖ (bellum omnium contra omnes). The book has been interpreted by scholars as posing two "stark alternatives"; total obedience to an absolute ruler, or "a state of nature, which closely resembles civil war...where all have reason to fear a violent death".^[18] Hobbes' view can therefore be interpreted as a defense of absolutism, arguing that human beings enter into a social contract for their protection and agree to obey the dictates of the sovereign; in Hobbes' worldview, "the sovereign is nothing more than the personal embodiment of orderly government."^[19] Hobbes himself argued "The final cause, end, or design of men (who naturally love liberty, and dominion over others) in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves, in which we see them live in Commonwealths, is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more contented life thereby."

The elucidative as the phenomenon arose up in western Europe in reply to the query of progressive revolutionary bourgeoisie, and also scientific knowledge, that developed. The representatives of Time of elucidative argued against ideological dominant influence of religion, laboured for political freedoms and criticized all, that was related to the former mode of society. Into the first place the figures of Elucidative began to pull out freedom of man and force of still human mind.

A netherlands philosopher Benedict Spinoza was the bright representative of time of early Elucidative. He considered that the state has arisen up on the basis of public agreement in order that people could provide the own safety, and also carry out a mutual help.

The question of freedom was the main aspect of political looks of Spinozi. In this sense he argued against any type of monarchy and was predisposed to the republican-democratic form of rule, as, in his opinion, she more for all answers principles of freedom. Considered that in which all citizens take part in the government the best form of state rule Spinoza.

In opinion of Spinozi, sovereignty can not interfere in the internal life of people and dictate them the laws of conscience, for freedom of which he came forward.

The looks of Spinozi were the reflection of public consciousness of Dutch bourgeoisie which in 60th years XVII age was most developed in Europe. Therefore his political studies belonged at that time to most progressive and leading. They assisted to development of prirodnopravovih and contractual conceptions of origin of society.

The ideas of New time and time of early Elucidative were instrumental in disintegration of feudalism and became foundation of liberalism. Among them an idea about that was important, that defence and guard of natural rights for every citizen is the main function of the state.

The bases of individualism and inviolability of peculiar became the basis of liberalism. In times the feudalism the own was found in the hands of higher layers of society, therefore any increase of own out of their scopes was considered as violation of feudal orders.

Development of capitalist relations pulled at appearance of liberalism, which became theoretical ob–rountouvannyam origin and subsequent development of civil society, after itself.

One of founders of doctrine of liberalism was the English philosopher and political thinker John Locc.

Substantial influence on his political world view was corrected by English revolution in 1688, the basis of which a compromise between nobility and bourgeoisie was.

John Locc goes out in the scientific constructions from the theory of the natural state of people and contractual origin of the state. He defends a peculiar, money economy and economic policy which encouraged development of trade and industry. The state is to provide blessing of the natural state and guard basic human rights: right to the life, individual freedom and peculiar.

Sharl Montesc'e was the prominent political thinker of time of Elucidative in France. He tried to find such principles of framework of society, which would guarantee definite socio-political stability and civil liberties.

From lawlessness and self-will he saw the safe conduct of citizens in realization of principle of division of power on executive one, legislative and judicial. These functions can not be executed by the same person. A man can not arbitrate on own business or execute the decision which she and accepted.

A similar principle is used in relation to the state. The transmitters of separate types of power must be independent in the actions. At the same time all three functions of power on a necessity are integrated and vzaemopov'yazani. Therefore independence becomes a basis for mutual inhibition, the system of counterbalances which hinder to some organ of power to impose the exceptional will is created.

Thus, in accordance with Montesc'e, essence of moderate and free rule consists in his constitutional mechanism based on the equilibrium of different organs of political power.

Selecting three basic forms of rule: republic, monarchy and despotism, Montesc'e considered the limited monarchy the ideal. However he marked also, that the republican form of state rule was appropriate, as well as monarchist. To the despotic form of rule Montesc'e belonged extremely negatively.

Rousso Gan-gac was the prominent representative of French Elucidative. The problem of inequality between people comes forward the central reason of his study. He saw its root in the region of public development. Understood social inequality Rousso as inequality property, that is related to the peculiar.

Rousso is the author of conception of public agreement which association of even and free individuals is created on the basis of. Thus peoples are the supreme ruler of society (by souverenom).

Looks Rousso became ideological pre-condition of revolutionary events in France at the end of XVIII age.

Important payment in development of political thought was done by the German thinkers Imanouil Edging and Georg William Fridrih Gegel.

Edging was engaged in development of problems of right, state and law, first entered notion the "legal state". In his opinion, setting of right consists in that to adhere to moral principles in the human relations, to provide individual freedom and public equality of citizens.

Edging considered that for the observance of legal norms in society the necessary definite forced force, which will retain citizens within the framework of moral principles, that answer a right. By the lever of the given compulsion he counted the state. The state which comes forward the guarantor of right, and will be legal.

Gegel entered notion "civil society", which, in his opinion, presents by itself society of proprietors, that are freely exchanged by the articles of own and the same provided mutual confession.

Gegel was one of the first thinkers which offered interpretation of civil society as systems of material necessities.

In accordance with Gegelem, only in the state the real freedom of individuals turns out. Consequently, existence of civil society sees the presence of the state as backgrounds of his development and functioning.

As to the most civil society inherent self-contradictions and conflicts, the state, for Gegelem, is that moral whole, which regulates the public relations and by means the institutes guarantees basic rights and freedoms of citizens.

In this sense the state functions in a legal plane, by submitting by itself a concrete right. In opinion of Gegelya, this clever state guarantees existence of constitutional line-up, representative organs and equality of citizens before a law.

The political ideas of the pas substantially affect modern political looks. In them not only the way of progress of political thought, cultures of humanity, but also progress of forming and claim of political and legal values common to all mankind, is represented.

LECTURE: POLITICAL POWER AND ITS FUNCTIONING

MECHANISM

Outline

1.Conceptof power

2.Features and functions of political power.

3.Power structure.

4.The mechanism of political power.

Point № 1.

Power takes the key position in politics.The problem of power has always been the most mysterious and interesting issue and took an important place in the history of political thought and political theory of modernity.Already in ancient China, Confucius and Mao Tse paid attention to the divine and natural origin of power and the need for the existence of government as a mechanism for communication among people, regulator relations of domination and subordination between managers and managed. Confucius (551-479 BC) considered power as God’s providence and gave it patriarchal and paternal interpretation of powerand likened the hierarchical authority of the Emperor over the subjects of parental authority senior, head of the family or genus of the younger members. Most of the ideas and concepts that interpret political power, and also the definitions of the category "power" in the early history of political thought are primarily concerned with the order and agreement between people, management and regulation in human relations.

Mao Tse (479-400 BCE) came from a rationalistic interpretation of the nature of power, being almost the first in expressing the idea of "natural origin" in the "social agreement" in the most general form, while noting that people chose the ruler of the Celestial as the wisest and virtuous man and declared him "The Son of Heaven" in order to create a system of control and to overcome social chaos observed among people who lived like wild beasts.

Aristotle had similar reasoning in "Politics" when he wrote that mighty mechanism was necessary for the organization and regulation of communication among people, as everywhere supreme power is connected with the order of state control. Political and state power were identified.Aristotlesaid: "There is such power which people use over similar and free people. We call it the power of a state".

Machiavelli grounded the essence and social nature of political power as the state one. Then in the New Time, the idea of the state mechanism finds a more expanded explanation in the theory of "social contract". One of its creators, an English thinker T. Hobbes, wrote about the need for the organization of general power by agreement of each person with each other to overcome the natural state of the "war of all against all". Harmony "can only be achieved in one way, namely through the concentration of all power and strength in one person or ina meeting of people, that with the majority of votes could make all the wishes of citizens in a single will". T. Hobbes developed understanding of political power and its domination in the life of society. State power is a person or a collection of will, which governs all other. Welfare of people is the highest law of a state. Power is force, who has no forces, he has no power. The key concepts of the teachings of D. Lock about the power of trust, when the Parliament and the Government use political power as proxies of people and this trust may be lost. The theory of powers separation is based on this thesis.

Developing the idea of the "social contract" Rousseau believed that power authorities should be given not alone toa sovereign sovereign, but to the People's Association, that expresses the will of the entire people as an identical fraction of peoples’ liberties. F. Hegel, defining a state power as "general substancìonal will" for the benefit of civil society and the optimization of management, finds the necessary functional distribution of power in the legislature, reflecting the common interests, in the government that combines general and individual, special cases, and, finally, in the Prince's, which unites general, special and specific elements into a single system of state mechanism, which wins due to the narrowness of the selfish interests."The main policy tool is violence", M. Weber pointed the power, as the possibility of the individual to exercise his will against the resistance of the other regardless of the reason for this opportunity.

In the political theory of modernity thereis a series of "internal" and "external" differences on the formal sphere of political power and the real practice (the structure of a state and economic system). This classification is based on the thesis of a Polish politologist E. Vyatr.

1. Behaviorists concept of power (G. Lassuell, J. Kathleen F. Hegel). Authority as a special type of behavior, in which some people commandeered by others, while others are subject to them. There were offered three "models" of a political process: power, market, game:

а) "a power model" is "the will to power";

b) "a market model" is when "power is sold and purchased";

c) "game model" is when "politics is a theater and a field of game".

2. The psychological concept of power (Z. Freud, K. Jung). Power is the behavior of real individuals, the origins of power are rooted in consciousnessand subconsciousness of people. Desire for power and especially its mastering performthe functions of subjective compensation for physical or spiritual inadequacy.

3. The system of power concept. The existence and power production depends not on individual relationship to the society, but on the social system. Thereare three approaches:

а) maсroapproach (T. Parsons, D. Easton) – power is a way of organization, the

mediator in the political system, the condition for its survival, a means of decisionmaking and the allocation of values;

b) mezoapproach (M. Krozye, N. Luman) – power is analysed in correlation

with subsystems of society, with its organizational structures, power as a means of social communication that allows to adjust multiple conflicts and provides integration of society;

c) mìcroapproach (T. Clarke, M. Rogers) – power as the interaction of

individuals within specific social system

4. Teleological concept of power (Bertrand Arthur William Russell). Power is the ability to reach a goal, getting the intended results.

5. Structural-functional concept of power (Talcott Parsons – american sociologist and theorist, head of the school of structural functionalism, one of the founders of modern theoretical sociology and social anthropology.). Power is a special kind of relationship between subordinates and supervisors. The society has a hierarchy that distinguishes the management and performance roles.

6. Relations concept of power. Power is like relations between individuals, in which one of them has the influence on the other. Three approaches to the interpretation of power:

а)"resistance" (D. Cartwright, J. French)-psychological stress in the system of

power relations;

b) "exchange of resources" (p. Blau, D. Hickson)-sociology emphasis;

c) "the distribution of zones of influence" (Dr. Rong)-political emphasis. 7. Instrumental concept of power (Charles Edward Merriam Jr. (November 15, 1874 – January 8, 1953) was a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, founder of the behavioralistic approach to political science, and an advisor to several U.S. Presidents; Hans Joachim Morgenthau (February 17, 1904 – July 19, 1980) was one of the leading twentiethcentury figures in the study of international politics_.). Power as the ability to use certain instruments, such as violence and coercion.

8. Conflict concept of power. Power as decision-making means, governing the distribution of benefits in conflict situations.

9. Marksist concept of power (K. Marx, F. Engels). Power has class nature, there are relations of domination and subjection. State power takes the main place in the system of social power.

The development of political theory as for the entity of power was reflected in the emergence of new approaches to the study of this phenomenon, the most common among them are the neostructural concepts.

10. "Archaeology and genealogy of power" (M. Foucault). M. Foucault defines power as nonpersonified, modal communication ("relations of relations"). The relationship between the subjects of the Government is such, because they are in a permanent change in power lines and correlation of forces. The concept of "the power field" (P. Burdye). P. Burdye has proposed the concept of "symbolic power", grounded it as a collection of "capital", which is distributed among the subjects of the power according to their position in the political space.

All the cited concepts of power do not exclude one another and emphasize its multiple meaning as a political phenomenon.

In modern Ukrainian political science power has also become the object of study because of the need for political changes in the appropriate structure of life, the development of the legal state and thus the development of political science.

Political power has its special place in the social system to power.

Political power is the ability and the right to exercise decisive influence on political activity and political behavior of people and their associations with the help of any means – freedom, authority, rights, violence.

On this basis we can learn the features of political power:

1. Representing the political interests of the object of the social community, which it represents.

2. Institutional is political solution to the subject of the problems of society. When a political subject comes into interaction with other political subjects.

3. Political activity is the ability to find a means of resolving social problems.

4. In the modern political literature there are three aspects of governance:

directive, functional and communicative. We'll see further how these aspects are found out.

Point № 2.

Power is a means of realizing the common interests and achieving common goals. One of the types of social interaction is political power. It is characterized by the following signs:

1. Political power prioritizes the interests of power subjects, which become generallyaccepted for all strata of the population.

2. Political power in the entity contains a contradiction between a subject and an object of the ruling , because power is the ability to enchant, to influence by using certain tools, that causes resistance in parts of the population. The ruling subject also has the advantage of entity (status, prestige, awareness, knowledge, etc.).

3. Relations between entities, dependent on the conditions, mastering a set of tools that enable the formation and realization of one's ability to impose its will on the others.

4. A sign of political power is also objective because of conditions, which determine relationshipand willed actions of people. Objective interrelations, needsand interests are behind subjective and willed relations.

5. At the present stage of society development political influence, trust, cooperation, stimulation, involvement of masses in political decision making are becoming the dominating forms of subjects’ ruling.

6. Political power functions and exists in various types: state, party, regional, international etc.

7. Features of political power are connected with the ability of individuals, groups and their organisations to realise their interests and will with the help ofpolitical and state means of management and control. Political power is divided into state and public represented by parties, public movements, mass media.

8. Some other manifestations of political power include the following:

• political power exists in relations between big social groups, nations, public organisations;

• political power envisages the necessity of organization procedures to express the interests in political sphere via party, state and other institutes;

• possibility to use various resources (economic, information etc);

• integration of open and shadow centers of power which are acting secretly avoiding the sphere of public inspection;

• monocentricity that implies the availability of the single center for decision making (in opposition to economic power which is based on pluralism of power subjects);

• hierarchy in power relations;

• partiald elegationof power controls fromone subjectto the other which bearst here sponsibility fort heir implementation (amodel: centralpower, localpower);

• ideology.

Thee ssence of political and state power is still difficult to identify.

Political power – is some special form of social relations among great groups of people, a real possibility of some definite social group, class, an individual to introduce in life power which is reflected in policy, political and juridical standards.

State poweris the form of social power that rests on some special staff and expands on all population: concentrated core of political power. They both have got constant features that are cited below:

Features of political and state power:

• Appeal to all people;

• Single center to take decisions;

• Necessity of decision;

• Organisation and activity for organization aims;  Specificmanagementapparatus to control and force.

The difference between the state and political power is that a state implies some special apparatus with some specific material mean stoin fluence people relying on the institutes of law.

Political power canfunction with outthe special apparatus off orceand the institute of law but with the help of organisations with political and ideological values. Political power must be politically grounded. Interrelation of political parties, leaders, lobby groups will be effective to realize their aims. Political parties and beurocraticorganisations are the forces that influence the range of decisions which can be used on the territory of a national state.Its action can be vividly seen in modern political life of Ukraine.

Basic principles of political power are its legitimacy, reality, self-criticism, patience and persistence. Effectiveness of power can be judged by its functions.

Functions of political power are:

Integrative function.One of the basic purposes of power is to integrate the efforts of various socio-political forces, political parties and public associations on the platform of nationwide interests. In this way the authorities are trying to avoid confrontational issues to prevent conflicts and manage them, directing the course of political events in a constructive direction.

Regulatory function. An important purpose of power is the regulation of the society life. With such tools as law and the system of political standards governing structures exert political and normative regulation of all processes of social life. Motivational function. One of the functions of power is the formation of the motives of political activities, subjecting to socially meaningful motives all other ones of political activities of various political forces and the political and organizational structures.

Konsolidating function.An important purpose of power is to consolidate all elements of the political system. Taking into consideration the nature and trends in society, political relations, political institutions, norms of political life, as well as on the basis of features political regime functioning and the level of political culture, authorities are trying to avoid confrontation and consolidate forms of society. If the power authorities are unable to consolidate various elements of the political system, this can cause serious deformations and crises in the socio-political life.

Stabilizing function.Power is an important stabilising force in the organization of social and political life. The stability of power is reflected in a constant strengthening of the political system, continuous updating and development of democratic political institutions, guarantee and protection of political rights and freedoms of citizens. It should be noted that power can be destabilizing under certain conditions inthe development of the political life and the society. This happens when the old power reveals a complete inability to manage a state or when the new poweris still in the process of its making and lacks the support of most people. Under such conditions, some well-organised political force in a society can benefit fromthe situation of instability and come to power on a wave of discontent with nationwidediscontent about long neglecting economic and social problems of the society.

Therefore, the functioning of power is an important factor in the life of society and its political system, because power binds all political and structural elements in a single whole. Power becomes the guarantor of political development and functioning of all social life being divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches in every democratic society.

Power is the interaction between asubject and an object, they are also active elements in the power structure. The subject of power includes its active, directive origin. It can be a person, an organ, an organization, etc. For real power relationsa subject must possess such qualities as the desire to rule and the will to power, as well as being competent, know the condition and mood of the subordinates, have the purpose and the authority.

Power subjects are conditionally divided into primary and secondary ones:

The primary subject of a republican, democratic governing is the people – the media sovereignty and the only source of power in the state. It provides power directly and through bodies of state power and local self-government. The concept of nation is not uniform: the mainsubjects of power are large groups of the population, merged by common interests and goals; minor subjects include small ethnic groups, religious communities, etc.

Secondary subjects of media power – a small group of representative groups of associated groups, groups of particular (private, informal) interests, etc. The sovereign subject of political power is a citizen of the State, endowed with constitutional rights and duties.Significant role in power relations is played by political leaders. The consequences of their policy, as it is known, is different: the progressive and regressive, the fruitful and the fruitless, smooth and tragic. Total (collective) bearer of political power is the political system of society as a way of organization and development of social communities and their relations.

The object of power always has a choice: either to submit or perish, but does not obey that is why the border of power, the attitude of an object extend from a hard resistance, fighting for the destruction to voluntary conquest perceived with joy. Interaction is done using resources, which regulate the process of ruling.

Subject-object power relations are specific in nature, since certain subjects and objects of power can exchange places, depending on the circumstances and roles. Yes, classes, social groups, ethnic communities, individual citizens, socio-political organizations are the subjects of political power, they and the relationships between them are subject to government influence.All spheres of social life -economic, spiritual, social, scientific and technical and the society in general – are also the objects of political power .

Power resources are a collection of tools, theuse of which provides the impact on the object of power in accordance with the goals of the subject.

Basic groups of power resources are: economic which include material values necessary for social production and consumption, soil and its fossils, money, property etc; social which deal with increase of social status or position, level in the social structure; political and judicial including constitution, laws, documents and programs of political parties; military forces with their arms and specially trained people to oppose protests and riots; informative which are connected with knowledge and information as well as means of their acquisition and promotion; demographic which deal with people as a universal resource that produce other resources.

At the present stage of society development power is aimed at a bigger choice of the resources the application of which is influences by a subject. Cultural and information resources such as knowledge, information are more expanded as well as means of theirpromotion. Power stability in a state and on the international arena largely depends on the effective application of these resources.

Point № 4.

The analysis of power mechanism, methods of its structure and practical activities in specific fields of social and national life helps to understand power essence better.The policy, which is promoted in the society by ruling classes, groups, determines the nature of power, and both the structure and the form in which it is carried out.

Political power rests on the state institutions (through the activities of the legislative, executive and judicial institutions) and presupposes the satisfaction of interests of large groups of people.

Political power of state-governed society is associated with the notion of the power pyramid. It consists of a vertical power relations, a system of institutions and norms that ensure the sustainability of these relationships and distribution of roles.

The mechanism of power has a complex structure, where the formal primary subject and source of power are people. It transmits its power to its official andindirect agent – a state, which in turn distributes it among the "media" as the "horizontal" (legislative, executive, and judicial spheres), and "vertical" (central, regional, local authorities) in order to manage public affairs ("an object") on behalf of the society and the state ("a subject").

The issue of powerindivisibility and heterogeneity is very difficult .It should be noted that political power is undivided, because it is sovereign. It is the unity and indivisibility of the power that guarantee the stability of the political life. At the same time political and public activity of the authorities is not homogeneous, because it turns up in different forms: the legislative, executive and judicial. That's why there is a problem of labor division of the state authorities. Is it that in the fight against the tyranny of feudal monarchy, representatives of the new buržuaznogo class is widely used the idea of separation of powers as a means of overcoming the tyranny and lawlessness existing then political power. In political theory, the idea of separation of powers has received the name of "checks and balances", which became the guarantor of legality and law and order in society. As the political experience of implementation of the public administration "checks and balances" ensures stability of the political system and at the same time is a guarantee against arbitrariness and gìpercentralìzacìï of power in society. It was natural that in the fight against the tyranny of feudal monarchy, representatives of the new bourgua class widely used the idea of separation of powers as a means of overcoming the tyranny and lawlessness in the then existing political power. In political theory, the idea of separation of powers has received the name of "checks and balances", which became the guarantor of legality and law and order in society. As the political experience of implementation of the public administration "checks and balances" ensures stability of the political system and at the same time is a guarantee against arbitrariness and hypercentralisation of power in society.

The system of power in the new Constitution of Ukraine is interpreted in this formal legal terms: "the bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in Ukraine are people. People exercise power directly and through bodies of state power and bodies of local self-government. Nobody can usurp state power "(article 5). The state power in Ukraine is exercised on the basis of its division into legislative, executive and judiciary (art. 6). "Ukraine is determined and guaranteed by the local government‖.

But in fact the real power is often the bearer of bureaucracy, its various levels and executions, officials and functionaries of the management system of the executive power, as well as various factions of the ruling elite, which distribute "the sphere" of powers and "zone" control over resources. There in lies the difficulty of understanding the power as regulator of the collective life of society in the process of its cooperation and achieving common objectives, i.e. consideration of state-public authority as the contemporary mechanism of regulation and the social dialogue the people which creates a particular sphere of public life, referred to as policy.

The political elite is an active minority that monopolizes pow er

Reigns supreme:

1.Has the power to make decisions on behalf of the entire nation;

2. Controls the behavior of the masses through positive and negative sanctions;

3. Has the prestige and certain privileges.

Using:

1.Structural resources: laws, Court, State apparatus, party discipline;

2. Psychological resources: fear, interest,

belief;

3. Material resources.

Reports to:

1. Internalizes the content of political

will;

2. Accept (actively or passively) elite

orders;

3. Executes orders.

In connection with the question of political powerit becomes a matter of political stability in society.Do people recognize this power? Is this power necessary and justified? Is this power legitimate or not?

Legitimacy (from LAT. legitimus-legal, authorized) is the ability of political power to achieve social recognition, justifying the chosen political course.

Max Weber borrowed this term from the field of law to tipologìzacìï existing types ofdominance and singled out three main types of legitimacy:

1. Traditional – when power operates by the rules that were traditional

"because it was always so‖. Traditional norms are considered as fixed. The source of legitimacy is traditional consciousness.

2. Legal – when the power is based on the recognition of the established legal norms regulating the relations of the dominion and conquest. The source is a general understanding of the rules established by law.

3. Charismatic – when power is based on the faith of the masses in the personal abilities of the political leader. The source is personal authority of a Governor.

Based on a comparison of the existing political systems D. Easton singled out the following types of legitimacy:

1.Ideological – when power relies on conviction or belief of people in those ideological values which the authorities have declared. The source is ideological values.

2. Structural-when people appreciate the mechanisms and norms of the existing system of governance. The source is specific political structures.

3. Personalised – occurs in a moral endorsement of the people that are in power (intersects with the charismatic type).

In a real policy these types of legitimacy of power tend to complement each other. Dominating traitsare associated with an existing type of political regime.

Now some scientists began to talk of a new kind of legitimacy, the Soviet one, to create which was an attempt after October's events of 1917. However, in the 1990s this type of legitimacy shifted down, lost the support of the masses, as well as means of political and ideological influence on the masses.

In Ukraine, as well as all over the post-Soviet space, developed the governing which inherited features of traditional, charismatic and rational-legal legitimacy.

The ensuring the legitimacy of political power in modern Ukraine are related to economic and social instability in society, which reduces the possibilities of power.

Improvement and democratization of political management involves finding new ways of implementing authorities and certain requirements to them. A Russian political thinker IvanIlyin (1882 – 1954) articulated the six axioms of state power:

1. State power cannot belong to anyone other than those who have legal authority. Legal consciousness requires that the power is accepted not as a force that gives rise to the right, as the legal authority. The right is born not of strength, but only by law and always from the natural law. Power, that has no legal sanctions, does not have the legal foundation.

2. State power within each political union should be the one. It is the only organized will, which follows from the unity of the law. In every political union a state power, despite the principle of its division, is single in its essence and purpose. The presence of two state powers testifies to the existence of two political alliances.

3. Power must be carried out by people who meet high ethical and political residency. Power without authority is worse than anarchy. People who deny the power of the best are treated as shameful crowd, and demagogy are its conductors.

4. Political program of the ruling may involve only measures that have a common interest. Since state power is designed to maintain the natural rights, and it coincides with the general interests of the nation and every citizen.

5. The political program of power should cover measures and reforms that can be realistically implemented. It is unacceptable to resort to utopian, unreal programming.

6. State power is fundamentally linked to delivering justice. However, the power has the right and obligation to retreat from it when this is required by national and spiritual life of people.

The practice of political life shows that ignoring these axioms leads to the crisis of power, destabilization of society, conflict situations that could escalate even in the civil war.

The complexity of the problem of power formation and functioning is to findan optimal ratio of mobilizing efforts of power and democratic forms of society organization for a specific political and the organic relationship between them, which would make it impossible the uncontrollability of people and bodies in whose hands power is concentrated.

Therefore, the strategic goal of the reform of institutions in Ukraine is to provide a coherent, productive and responsible activity of the legislative and executive branches of state power, the comprehensive democratization of all spheres of social life and consolidating of civil society, creation of necessary conditions for further integration in the European Community.

The category "political power" is one of the dominating in political science. The phenomenon of power involves the study of the relationship between the action, institutions and social structures, and turns out to be many-sided.

Effective political power must ensure society protection and contribute to its development. The stability and strength of the power depends on legitimacy.

These are the most important issues that are related to the problem of political power, its structure, the basic elements of their relationship's dominance.

LECTURE: POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SOCIETY

Outline

1. Political system of society. Basic theories of political system:  Theory of the political system by D. Easton.  Theory of the political system by G. Almond.

 Theory of the political system by C. Doutcsch

2. Structure, functions and mechanism of political system functioning.

3. Functions of Political System.

4. Types of political systems.

Point 1.

Human society is found in the process of permanent changes, that take place under the influence of different factors. Social intercommunications between people are getting complicated, new necessities and accordingly types of activity appear to satisfy them. In addition, natural environment, energy resources, international conditions of of modern states existence are restructuring as well. Therefore, the point of how society adapts to the requirements of constantly changing internal and external environment, was always actual..

The society ability to respond to the growing demands of individuals, to adapt to the conditions of its functioning is provided by the political system.Здатність суспільства реагувати на зростаючі потреби індивідів, адаптуватися до умов свого функціонування, що змінюються, забезпечується політичною системою.

Political system affects different aspects of society life due to activity of political structures and institutes, and also implementation by the people the political roles of the managing and the managed.Завдяки діяльності політичних структур та інститутів, а також виконанню людьми політичних ролей керуючого і керованого, політична система впливає на різні боки життя суспільства.

The political system of society is an integral, well-organized aggregate of political institutes, relations, ideas, standards and traditions, directed on realization of political power, management and adjustment of political processes.

A term «political system» was brought into political science in the 50-60s years of the XX century. Its application reflected the increasing understanding of policy character system. Till that time the concept «type of governance», and a bit later «system of governance» were used to describe the imperious relations. But their use restricted policy to activities of state structures.

The notion of «systems» was introduced into the scientific circulation by the

German biologist L. von Bertalanffy in the 20s years of the ХХ century to describe the processes of cell exchange with external environment. He viewed the system as aggregate of interdependent elements, as integrity that consists of «elements, which are found in interaction».

The concept of «system» for consideration of society was transferred by T. Parsons, who presented the society as the interaction of four subsystems, which are in a relationship of interdependence and mutual exchange: economic, political, social, and spiritual. Each of the subsystems performs definite functions, responds to the requirements that act from inside or outside, and together they provide the vital functions of society as a whole.

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) – an American sociologist and theoretician

Hence it appears that: Political system of society – is the complete, ordered set of political institutions, political relations, ideas, norms and traditions, to implement political power, control and regulation of social – political processes.

Theory of the political system by D. Easton

David Easton 1917 American political scientist D. Easton, an American politologist, is thought to be the founder of the system approach in political science.He defined the policy as "strong-willed distribution of values." In this context, the political system is a mechanism of formation and functioning of power in the society to allocate resources and values.

Systems approach allowed to define more clearly the

place of policy in the life of society and reveal the mechanism of social changes in it. On the one hand, policy emerges as a relatively independent sphere, the main purpose of which is the allocation of resources and to inspire the perception of this distribution, as required for most societies. On the other hand, policy is part of the general integrity of the society. It must respond to the impulses that come into the system, to prevent conflicts arising from the distribution of values between individuals and groups.

support Political

The international system and other systems

Thus, according to David Iston, the system analysis of political life is based on the notion of the system, that is submerged in the environment and subjected to its influence. Such analysis assumes that for the purpose of its survival the system must have the power to react. Constantly communicating with an external environment, the political system by means regulative machineries produces the proper reactions on impulses, that act, adapting to the external operating conditions.

Constantly maintaining its connection with the external environment, the political system responds to the coming impulses through the regulatory mechanisms adjusted to the external functioning conditions.

Mechanism of political system functioning

Sharing of resources and interaction of political system with the environment are carried out according to the principle of "log-out". D. Easton distinguished two types of "login": requirement and support.

Demand can be defined as a thought addressed to the authorities about the desired or unwanted distribution of values in a society.

D. Easton allocated the following types of requirements:

a) positioning (about the salary of an employee, the terms of its receipt,

time, etc.).

b) regulatory (about ensuring public safety, control of a manufacturer and

the market;

c) communication (about providing political information about the use of

political power etc.).

Requirements tend to weaken political system. Support means strengthening of political system. It covers all positions and options of behavior favourable for a system.

A manifestation of support is in the correct payment of taxes, performing military duty, holding demonstrations in support of the regime etc. Support ensures the relative stability of the authorities that are making demands of the environment in relevant decision.

Political regime, the authorities and the political cooperation are the main objects of the support in the political system. As a result of the impact of the environment on the system there is a reaction, called "output", i.e. authoritative decisions regarding the distribution of values. Responses to impulses originating from the outside, are carried out in the form of decisions and actions.

Political decisions can be in the form of new laws, applications, regulations, subsidies, etc. Execution of decisions is ensured by force Політичні рішення можуть мати форму нових законів, заяв, регламентів, субсидій тощо.

Виконання рішень забезпечується силоміць.

Political actions are not forced, however, they affect different sides of public life. They are made in the form of a system of measures for regulation and solution of some urgent problems in the field of economy, ecology, social policy.

Theory of the political system by G. Almond

Gabriel Almond 1911-2002 – an American political

scientist

G. Almond believed that the ability of the political system to make transformations in society and at the same time maintain stability depends on the specialization of roles and functions of political institutions, which act as a collection of interdependent elements. Each element of the integrity of (the State, the party elite, law) performs a vital function for

the entire system. Thus, the system can be seen not only in terms of "saving", "changes" and "adaptation", but as "an engagement of structures", performing certain functions. All together they provide the basic needs of the system.

On this basis, he determined the political system as a collection of roles and their interactions among themselves, performed not only by governmental institutions but also by all structures of society for political affairs.

G. Almond and D. Paouell set that the political system must effectively carry out three groups of functions:

а) functions of cooperation with an external environment

б) functions of intercommunication within political sphere

в) functions, that provide safety and adaptation of the system.

Model of political system of G. Almond

Social environment

Information Social environment

Social environment

Claims

Support

Political system

Adaptation

• Formation of

interests

ENTRY •Combining EXIT

interests

•communication

Support

Social environment

Theory of the political system by C. Doutcsch

Karl Deutsch (1912-1992) was a German sociologist and

political scientist

K. Deutsch referred to the political system in the context of

the communications approach, according to which policy was understood as a process of control and coordination of the peoples’ efforts to achieve their goals. The wording of the objectives and their correction are carried out by a political system based on the information about the state of society and its attitude to the objectives, of the remaining distance to the goal; about the results of previous actions.

Consequently, functioning of the political system relies on the quality of permanent information stream, which comes from an external environment, and the information about its own motion. On the basis of two streams of information political decisions are taken in view of subsequent actions on the way to the set goal.

Model of political system of K.Deutsch

Point 2.

Political system consists of interdependent subsystems and provide functioning of public power. Different researchers name a different quantity of such subsystems. However, it is possible to select definite subsystems following their functional features.

Institutional subsystem includes the state, political parties, socio-economic and public organizations and relations among which in their combination form political organization of a society. The central place in this subsystem belongs to the state.

Regulatory or normative subsystem includes legal, political, moral standards and values, traditions, and customs. Through them the political system affects the activity of the institutions, the behaviour of the citizens.

Functional subsystem is a method of political activity, means of power exercising. It is the basis of political regime (consent, coercion, violence, authority).

Communicative subsystem includes all forms of political interaction within the system (for example, between institutions of the state and political parties) and the political systems of other countries

Point 3.

In the theory of systems function means any action in support of the system in a steady state and ensuring its viability. Actions that contribute to the destruction of organization, stability of a system, are seen as disfunction.

One of the commonly accepted classifications of the political system functions was represented by G. Almond and J. Powell. They identified the relevance of those functions, each of which meets the specific needs of the system, and all together they ensure ―the preservation of the system because of its change‖.

Preservation of the support for existing models of political system are done through using function of political socialization. Political socialization is the process of acquiring political knowledge, beliefs, feelings, values, inherent in the society in which a person lives.

Involvement of the individual in political values, accepted standards of political conduct, loyal attitude to institutions provide support to existing models of the political system. The stability of the political system is achieved in case if its functioning is based on the principles that correspond to political culture of a society. Thus, an American political culture is based on the row of myths, ideals and presentations, that are acknowledged by the majority of the population regardless religious and racial disagreements. Among them is an attitude toward the country as to the one blessed by God, that gives to everyone a unique possibility for self-realization, orientation on obvious success, confidence to break from poverty and attain riches only relying upon individual capabilities.

The viability of the system is its ability to adapt to the environment, its possibilities. Function approximation can be made with the help of political recruiting – preparation and selection of power leaders, elite, able to find the most effective ways of solving urgent social problems and offering them to a society.

The function of response is no less important. Due to this function, the political system responds to impulses, signals that are coming from its outside or inside. Highly-developed ability to react quickly enables the system to adapt to some changing conditions. This is especially important when there are new requirements for groups, parties but ignoring them can lead to decentralization, and collapse of a society.

The political system is able to respond effectively to emerging requirements with available resources. These resources are taken from internal or external economic environment. This function is extra valuable. The resources should be distributed so as to ensure the integration and acceptance of interests of different groups within a society. Therefore, the distribution of political system of goods, services and status is the content of the distribution function (mode).

Finally, the political system has effects on society by means of control to coordinate the behavior of individuals and groups. Management actions of the political system are expressing the essence of sound regulatory functions. It is realized by the introduction of rules and regulations, on the basis of which individuals, groups interact, and through the application of administrative and other measures against violators of the rules.

1. Function of interest expression s distribution). Political system must represent the interests of different social groups through various organizations. Otherwise, they may find other, often quite devastating forms to display their demands.

2. Function generalization of interest (response). The variety of interests in different social groups, and individuals in the community can be very large. So it is needed to generalise them to compile, translate the requirements into the language of programs, and bring them to power. This function is mainly performed by the party.

3. The development of rules and norms (political socialization). This function is performed by the legislative organs, introdusing laws and regulations.

4. Function of rules’ application (extraction). This function is performed by the executive bodies, which implement orders of legislators.

5. Control function of rules’ application (control). This function is performed by judicial organs and organs of violence or constrained.

6. The function of political communication (adaptation). It assumes different forms of interaction and exchange of information between various structures of the political system, leaders and citizens.

There are other views on the function of the political system, but they all stem from the fact that these features should ensure the integrity, stability, and development of the social organism. Taking into account everything mentioned above, political system of a society can be defined as an integrated set of political institutions which manage the power leadership of a society.

There are other views on the functions of political systems, but they all proceed from the assumption that these functions should ensure the integrity, stability and development of the whole social organism. 3 in light of the foregoing brief summary of the political system of society can be defined as an integrated set of political institutions that exercise state management and public administration.

The fuctions of the political system G. Almond and J.Powell:

Point 4.

The variety of the political systems, that exist in a modern world, indicates on that the great number of factors influence the process of their forming and functioning: history traditions, culture, economic development, maturity of the civil society, geopolitical terms and others like that. Advantage of these or other factors stipulates their features and uniqueness. However theoretical and practical interest presents that draws them together, allows to expose the role of universal machinery and conformity to the law of their functioning. The practical value of classifications of the political systems consists in determination of sufficient terms, that allow the political institutes effectively function and successfully execute the political roles.

Typology of the political systems is carried out on the basis of consideration of different features. One of the first classifications (typology) goes out from the character of their mutual relations with an external environment. After this criterion the political systems are divide into closed and opened. The closed political systems have the limited copulas with an external environment, they immune to the values of other systems and all-sufficient, that is the resources of development are found in such systems. The open systems are actively exchange the resources with an outer world, the front-rank values of other systems are successfully mastered, they are mobile and dynamic. The former socialist countries can serve the examples of the closed systems (the USSR, Hungary, Bulgaria etc.). To develop the democratic states of the West present by itself the example of the open political systems.

Classification of the political systems according to the political modes is enough widespread, it is based on the basis of character and facilities of cooperation of power, personality and society. Totalitarian political , authoritarian and democratic systems are selected according to this criterion.

For the totalitarian political system it is typical to have a complete submission of personality and society to power, regulation and control over all spheres of life of people on the side of the state. The authoritarian political system is based on unlimited power of one person or a group of persons at saving of some economic, civil, spiritual freedoms for citizens. The democratic political system provides priority of rights for personality, control of society above power.

The French political scientist G. Blondel distinguishes the political systems on maintenance and forms of management. He selects five basic varieties.

1. Liberal democracies, in which acceptance of political decisions is oriented on the value of individualism, freedom, ownership.

2. Communist systems or authoritarian-radical, that are oriented on the value of equality of rights, social justice.

3. Traditional political systems, that lean against the oligarchic forms of rule and are oriented on uneven allocation of economic resources and social statuses.

4. Populist political systems, that prevail in developing countries; they use the authoritarian methods of management and aspire to considerable equality in distributing of welfare..

5. The authoritarian-conservative political systems have the following aims:

saving of social and economic inequality, limitation of political participation of population.

In the basis of classification of the political systems class principle can be fixed, that is classes, whose interests are expressed by the political system. Similar typology is characteristic for marxism, that considered the political system as an instrument in the hands of economic dominant class. This feature was applied slavery, feudal, capitalist and communist (socialistic) political systems were selected.

In western political science typology of the political systems by G. Almond is recognised. He distinguished them after the type of political culture and division of political roles between the participants of the political process. G. Almond selected four types of the political systems: English-American, EuropeanContinental, preindustrial and partly industrial, totalitarian.

For the English-American political system (The USA, Great Britain) it is characteristic to have high degree of division of political roles and functions between the participants of the political process: by the state, parties, groups of interests and others like that. Power and influence is distributed between different links of the political system. The political system functions within the framework of the homogeneous culture oriented to defence confessedly society liberal values: will, safety, ownership and others .

The European-continental political system (countries of Western Europe) differs by the variety of political culture, by the presence of opposite values, ideals, in the national cultures popular with other ethnic, group, party. Therefore the division of political roles and functions takes place not on the scale of a society, but in a class, groups etc. However the presence of heterogeneous subcultures does not prevent to achieve a consent in society, on general cultural basis – liberal values.

PREINDUSTRIAL and partly industrial political systems have mixed

political culture. It consists of local political subcultures, in the basis of which are the values of clan, family, community, tribe. Therefore it is practically impossible to find a consent and compromise without resorting to force. Integration of society by means violence leads people to concentration of power and influence in the hands of a narrow circle.

The totalitarian political systems function on the basis of priority of class, national or religious values. Power is concentrated in the hands of monopolistic ruling party, groups of persons. It controls all sides of vital functions of society and individual. There are other classifications of the political systems, but they are less known.

LECTURE: STATE AS AN INSTITUTION OF POLITICAL SYSTEM

Outline

1. The origin and essence of the state.

2. The important features and elements of the state.

3. The functions of the state are divided into internal and external.

4. Forms of government and state structure.

Point № 1

The origin of the state, its essence, mechanisms of the functioning are the most complex problems in Political Science. They are important from the point of view of the society development and political system on the whole. It is related to the concentration in the state of the entire complex economic, social and political interests of various social groups, as well as the differences that arise between them.

The problems that emerged, including controversy between members of the society, were often settled by the authority of tribal warlords and with the help wild customs. However the subsequent development of the society started to require the adequate solution of many common problems, in particular the defence of external enemies, property protection and so on. With the decay of the primitive communities and strong tribal relationships it was necessary to create the special organizational structures and governing bodies within the scope of the social life of a definite separate community.

At the same time slavery provoked differentiation of society social structure the acceleration which contributed to the emergence of the social division of labour. It paved the way to the new social groups and strata with their specific interests and problems. An urgent necessity to create an effective mechanism to regulate mutual relations between different social groups and support the relations of private and collective property.

The STATE is the main institution of political system that organizes, directs and controls different joint activities and relationships of individuals, social groups and classes.

There is a great variety of the approaches and theories as for the origin of the state:

Patriarchal theory. (Sir Robert Filmer^*)

According to this theory the state originated from the family, that had overgrew. The expanding of the family took place due to the uniting of clans into tribes, tribes - into large communities and then up to the state establishment. In such state the role of the father is executed by a monarch, the role of children - by his subordinates. To care about his subordinates is the task of the monarch, at the same time, the subordinates are to obey him.

An Aincient Chinese thinker Confoutsiy, an ancient Greek philosopher Aristotel, an aincient Rome thinker and statesman Ciceron, an English scientist of the XVIII^th century R. Filmer were the supporters of this theory.

* Sir Robert Filmer (1588 – 26 May 1653) was an English political theorist who defended Divine rights in absolute monarchy. His best known work, Patriarcha, published posthumously in 1680, was the target of numerous Whig rebuttals, including Algernon Sidney's Discourses Concerning Government, James Tyrrell's Patriarcha Non Monarcha, and John Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Filmer also wrote critiques of Thomas Hobbes, John Milton, Hugo Grotius, and Aristotle.

Theocratic theory. (Thomas Aquinas^*)

This theory asserted the divine origin of the state. Its sources are found in the ancient works of some thinkers of the Middle and Far East. This theory supported the absolute power of rulers, including the representatives of church and the necessity of obeying their decisions for ages.

*Thomas Aquinas, O.P., also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism , known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis. "Aquinas" is not a surname (hereditary surnames were not then in common use in Europe), but is a Latin adjective meaning "of Aquino", his place of birth. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived as a reaction against, or as an agreement with his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory.

Violence theory. (E. Duhring, L. Gumplowich^*)

The state arises as a result of the conquest and enslavement of the weak groups and communities by the stronger and more organized ones, in particular the submission of the agricultural tribes by bellicose nomadic tribes. Hereupon the winners found the special institution - the state that includes the governing bodies that rule over the defeated. An Austrian scientist Gumplowich belongs

to the representatives of this theory.

*Carl Eugene Duhring (12 January 1833, Berlin - September 21, 1921, Novaves, near Potsdam) – a German philosopher, was also engaged in issues of political economy and law. Duhring got some ideas spread among the German Social-Democracy. Sociological concept is based on Duhring idealist view according to which the cause of social inequality, exploitation and poverty is violence. The socialist transformation of society by Duhring, should preclude a revolution and go in a spirit of petty-bourgeois socialism of Proudhon, through co-operation of small producers. Duhring was a proponent of teaching American economist Henry Charles Carey. He railed against the political economy of Marxism, dialectical materialism and scientific socialism.

*Gumplowicz (Gumplowich) Ludwig (1838-1909) is a Polish-Austrian sociologist and a legal scholar, a teacher at universities in Krakow and Graz, the author of many sociological and legal papers, the founder of the theory of "social conflict", "ethnocentrism" ... According to LA Gumplowicz, the state appears in the course of historical development, as a result of combat races (sometimes he talks about the struggle of tribes or hordes). It arises by force of conquest and subjugation of one race on the other.

Contractual theory. (G. Grotsiy, J. Locc, G. Rousso^*) This theory is also named as the social contract theory. Accoding to this theory the state arises due to the disposition of people to the concerted actions which led to the agreements about the conscious self-restraint of their freedoms and rights for the sake of the common interests and the safety of coexistence. The agreement is made

between the rulers and the subordinates with the view of organizing and arranging the social life. In this regard the state is an organ of the common reconciliation of people, for which the conflict is natural. This point of view was suppored by such scientists as G. Grotsiy.-J. Russo,

T. Gobs, D. Didro and others.

*A Dutch lawyer, political thinker and historian Gougo Grotsiy, was one of those scientists, who tried to release political thought from theology. He acknowledges a right divine and right a still human. This approach from the point of view history terms of that time was a step ahead, which releases a man from hegemony of franchise right, that is given by a church. The world view rationalism is the basis of political doctrine of Grotsiy. To settle political conflicts a mind must. He is a supreme judge, and not divine providence.

* John Locc goes out in the scientific constructions from the theory of the natural state of people and contractual origin of the state. He defends a peculiar, money economy and economic policy which encouraged development of trade and industry. The state is to provide blessing of the natural state and guard basic human rights: right to the life, individual freedom and peculiar.

*The problem of inequality between people comes forward the central reason of his study. He saw its root in public development. Understood social inequality Rousso as inequality property, that is related to the peculiar. Rousso is the author of conception of public agreement which association of even and free individuals is created on the basis of. Thus peoples are the supreme ruler of society (by souverenom).

Marxist or social and economic theory. (K. Marx,

F. Engels, V. Lenin)

The state arises as a result of the split of the society into classes and the appearance of the private property. The split happened as a result of the division of labour. At first, in primitive society, there was common property, joint

labour and economy. The equal attitude of the members of the primitive community toward tools predetermined the collective principles of coexistence. Afterwards the division of labour, particularly the separation of the agriculture from cattle breeding, entailed the surrender of property from parents to the children. The peasant community based on a private property was created, that resulted in economic inequality, strengthening of the power of the leaders and acquisition of signs of its heredity. The dissidence of society on two opposite task forces became a reason, in opinion of the admirers of the class approach, of the origin of definite organization - the state which would be an instrument in the hands of rich classes for the subsequent oppression of the poorest layers. Consequently the apologists of the Marxist theory, V. Lenin in particular, determined the state not only as the institute of the political system that governs the society, but also as an institute of class domination and machine for oppression of one class by the other.

*Karl Heinrich Marx (German: 5, 1818, Trier, Prussia - 14 March 1883, London, UK) – a German philosopher, sociologist, economist, political journalist and social activist. His work has shaped the philosophy of dialectical and historical materialism, in economics - the theory of surplus value in the policy - the theory of class struggle, which resulted in his view about the state. These areas became the basis of communist and socialist movements and ideologies, it is known as "Marxism."

*Engels, Friedrich is a German philosopher, social activist, one of the founders of Marxism. Friedrich Engels was born November 28, 1820 in Barmen (now Wuppertal), in the family a textile manufacturer. Engels, like Marx, is one of the founders of the materialist conception of history. Engels and Marx jointly undertook the dialectical materialist processing of bourgeois political economy. Created with the dialectical materialism of Marx, the materialist conception of history and scientific communism, Engels, in a number of his works in a strictly systematic form set out as an integral world outlook of Marxism, has shown its component parts and theoretical sources. Developing the doctrine of Marx's socio-economic formations, Engels revealed a number of specific patterns of primitive society, ancient and feudal societies, the emergence of the private property and classes of state formation. In his last years Engels devoted considerable attention to the relationship between the economic base, political and

*Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin alias, 10 (22) April 1870, Simbirsk - January 21, 1924, Gorky, Moscow Province) – a Russian and Soviet political and world statesman, revolutionary, founder of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) one of the organizers and leaders of the October 1917 revolution in Russia, Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (the government) of the RSFSR, the creator of the first in the history of the world socialist state, a Marxist, a writer, founder of MarxismLeninism, the ideologue and founder of the Third (Communist) International, the founder of the Soviet state. The scope of major political and journalistic works are connected with the theory and practice of socialist revolution and building socialism and communism, the political economy of socialism.

Psychological (L. Petrazhitsky)

The State is an organization that was formed to manage society by selected people. This guide is necessary because people have a psychological need for supervision.

*After the October Revolution he emigrated to Poland, before his death he headed the department of sociology at Warsaw University. Science, in his opinion, should study the human participation in processes of social life, that is, the psychic activity of an individual nature. L. Petrazhitsky denied an objective, natural and historical character of social relations. The contents of any social phenomenon is not in the objective terms, "it really exists in the minds of someone who studied it, is experiencing at the moment." Policy should be based only on the basis of everyday life's ethics and psychology, a theoretical system which, in his opinion, the legislator can give money to influence the behavior of citizens by the rules affecting these or other mental strings.

Hence, two approaches to the explanation of the genesis of the state were developed: a non-class and class. Most of today's national and foreign experts believe that the emergence and existence of the state is not a direct result of the emergence of private property and the division of a society into classes. For example, in ancient

Egypt and Babylon, Ancient China, the Israeli kingdom of David, the ancient societies in other countries, appearance of the state preceded the class differentiation of the population. A new experience is that with the approval of the civil society and rule of law, the latter turning into a transcending class, nation-wide institute, which is able to integrate, consolidate society, to play the role of an enabler of national interests, to ensure the integrity of the social system.

The tribal organization of the social life is a stage that developed into the state. Exactly a tribe which settled on definite territory becomes the organization of the state type. One of the criteria of the state organization, that replaced a tribal union, is the notion of a nation, and no tribe. There is no division of the population into separate clans that originated with the common ancestors in the state. Afterwards the permanent stay on its territory regardless of the origin, of the tribe which first opened up this territory, becomes the basis of the belonging to the definite state. Unlike the old family and tribal signs, the state unites all the population by its power. The common language, culture, history tradition unite the offsprings of separate tribes into unity. The moment of the awareness of the belonging to this unity, which appears at the definite stage of the development of this society, becomes a factor that unites the society and supports constancy of its existence.

The history of the establishment and development of a state is a difficult, many- sided process that is peculiar in different regions of the Earth. However, in spite of the features inherent to different civilizations and epochs, the evolution of the state basically coincides for the majority of nations.

The historical types of the state were changing in the process of the development of the human society. The universal tendency of the development of the state is the gradual transformation of the state in the organ that reflects the general necessities and interests of the society as a whole.

The type of the state is determined by the type of the production relations, economic basis of a society, by the interests of one or the other class. The fundamental change of the form of government, political system and the complete transition from one social structure to another are the basic principles of the evolution of the state types.

The slaveholding state was the first type of the state. It was represented by the unlimited dictatorship of a slaveholder, reflected and protected their interests. In this state the slaves were not considered as people, but as a special breed of animals.

The second historical type of the state was the feudal state. In comparison with the slave-holding state it was considerably more complex. First of all it concerned the management personnel, legal proceedings etc. A feudal law that took the serfs for inferior people protected the privileges of one estate and almost complete lawlessness of other. However, the feudal lord had no authority to dispose the life of the serfs. It was already a step forward in the social development.

The Middle ages and the beginning of the New Time, in particular, for the European countries, were the periods of strengthening and centralization of the state power. The basis of this process was a gradual removal of the feudal division, liquidation of the polycentrism of power, integration of provinces around the center.

As a result of the gradual transformations of feudal society appears the third type of the state – the bourgeois state. It is characterized by the origin of the stateterritorial organization of society with the well-organized apparatus of governance that had its employer-employee relations and functions instead of vassalage, the relations of the personal dependence.

Bourgeois state became a considerable advancement of humanity on the way of progress. It was the factor of the liquidation of the class division, establishment of the constitutional right that regulated rights, freedoms and duties of citizens, in particular the principle of distribution of the functions of power into legislative and judicial.

So what is the state and what is its essence? The state is a special form of the human community that has sovereignty and a definite structure and organization of political power and social process control over definite territory.

The essence of the state as a base institute of political system consists in adjusting and organization of the social life on the whole and realization of the political power by the elected part of the population in heterogeneous social space in oder to satisfy the public necessities, safeguarding of the integrity and safety of society.

Point № 2.

These are the important features and elements of the state:

1. Sovereignty. It means independence of the state in external affairs and supremacy in internal affairs. In the state there is a political sovereignty which makes all the decisions that are compulsory for every member of a society. The state expresses interests of a society but not of some individual political forces.

2. Territory. It is physical, material basis of the state, its spatial essence. The state territory is a part of a dry land, bowels of the earth, air and water space, where the power and laws of this state are in force. The state must care of its territorial integrity and sovereignty.

3. The special system of bodies and establishments that carry out the power. They include the institutes of legislative, executive, judicial branches of power, power structures: army, guard of law and order, security services.

4. The law which fixes the system of the norms sanctioned by the state (laws and other legal normative acts) that are compulsory for all subjects of society.

5. The right to set and collect taxes from the population. The taxes are necessary for the material security of the public policy: economic, social, defensive and others, and also for maintenance of the state machine and citizens that do not produce material values and exist at the expense of the budgetary funds.

The fixing of the features and elements of the state has not only theoretical, but also important practical sense. They allow not only to distinguish the state from other public organizations, but also to see in it the indispensable form of the existence and development of the communities in the modern civilization. The state is an international legal subject. Only the state characters and attributes allow it to be called the state and to have its own rights, duties and plenary powers.

The place and role of the state in the political system of a society, and also its essence are determined by its functions.

Point № 3.

The internal functions of the state are: political, organizational-administrative, cultural and educational, law enforcement, economic, social, ecological, national integrity, demographic.

1. Political function. It is related to the preservation and strengthening of the effective political system, and social and political structure of society, ensuring political stability by the establishment of relationships with political parties, public institutes and development of the purposes and tasks for the society conducting the political course equitable to the interests of the state.

2. Organizational-administrative function. This function includes the realization of the plenary powers and administrative management that is manifested in the fulfillment of the decisions, realization of the measures on the coordination of different elements activity and the mechanism of management and control.

3. Cultural and educational function. It contains the following components:

arrangement of conditions for the satisfaction of the cultural necessities of the population, development of the system of education, possibility of the creative selfrealization and involvement in the world cultural values, forming on this basis of the high spirituality.

4. Law enforcement function. The enforcement of law and legality, establishment of the legal norms compulsory for all the citizens and public agents.

5. Economic function. It is one of the main functions and it consists in the organization and adjusting of the economic processes, support of economic stability and creation of the stimuli for the subsequent growth of the economy. In the present conditions the participation of the state in the economic processes shows up in the development and realization of the tax policy, extension of credits, use of the corporate strategic planning etc.

6. Social function. It includes the following components: satisfaction of the necessities of people in habitation, in employment, development of the sphere of health care, pledging of the social security for the exposed layers of the population, development of the special program of assistance on the national, and on the regional levels.

7. Ecological function. It centers around the environment protection, in the control and optimization of the use of natural resources, also in the development of influential mechanisms on the private companies working the industrial sector of the economy to improve the ecological situation.

8. National integrity function. This function means the arrangement of conditions for the preservation and development of the national identity of the representatives of different nationalities that live on the territory of the state, and also making the sense of a single motherland.

9. Demographic function. Its aim is to conduct some special measures directed on the creation of the permanent quantitative and high-quality parameters of the population reproduction.

10. Diplomatic and defensive functions belong to the external functions of the state.

A) Diplomatic function.

It includes the following components: establishment of close and stable communications with other states and international organizations in different industries of life activities of a society on the principles of partnership and collaboration, and also defence the interests of the state on the international scene. B). Defensive function.

The defensive function includes the following components: defence of the state from external encroachments, preservation of independence and territorial integrity of the state, participation in peacemaking and antiterrorist measures within the bounds of the realization of the principles of the collective security and rise of the international stability.

Its social and legal constituents are the most important aspects of the development of the modern state.

THE LEGAL STATE is the state in which rights and individual freedoms, the principles of the mutual responsibility are not only proclaimed but also ensured and realized.

The social state is a state that can ensure to the citizens the desered conditions of life, labours, social defence and possibilities for self-realization.

Point 4.

The structure of any state is characterized foremost by the forms of its public administration and territorial and state structure. They are the incarnation of the organization of the central and local powers, structure of the state bodies and principles of the mutual relations between them, and also political possibilities of citizens.

The peculiarities of the functioning of the state, sphere of its jurisdiction, content of the activity and general orientation of the development, depend on the mode of the state authority. In every country it has its features that can be manifasted in the existence of different government bodies, in different understanding of functions of the same government bodies, in difference of the principles of their intercommunication etc. The reasons of the differences in the structure of the government can be found in the history of the development of the country, in the features of its culture, economy , social and political life.

The form of the government is a method of the organization of the state sovereignty, principles and mechanism of co-operation of its structural elements.

Modern states has two forms of government: monarchy and republic.

A monarchy is characterized by the inherited transmission of the power to the head of the state, the power doesn`t come from some other power or electors.

In the modern world the monarchy exists in more than 40 countries.

The monarchies are divided into an absolute and a limited.

In case with the absolute monarchy the head of the state, its supreme ruler, has the absolute power; he/she has all necessary plenary powers and is a single higher public authority. Thus, the legislative establishments and constitutional orders are practically absent.

This variety of the monarchist form of government is inherent to the feudal societies and in modern countries almost does not exist in its pure form.

The limited monarchy is the form of government under which the power of the monarch is limited by some representative authority (by parliament). If these limitations are fixed in the effective constitution, this monarchy is called constitutional.

Depending on the level of the constitutional limitation of the plenary powers of the monarch the limited (constitutional) monarchy divides into dualistic and parliamentary.

A dual monarchy corresponds to the division of the plenary powers between a monarch and a parliament but a monarch has larger powers and personally forms a government that is subordinate to him. As a rule, the power of the monarch in such countries has more authority owing to the traditions, than the power of the parliament. Jordan and Morocco are the typical representatives of such variety of monarchies.

Under the parliamentary monarchy the power of the monarch is

substantially limited and it belongs in fact to the head of the government that is formed and approved only by the parliament and is accountable only to it. Under this form of government a monarch formally from the legal point of view remains the head of the state, but in fact he/she does not take part in the governing of the country. Being the symbol of the state unity of the nation the monarch executes mainly the ceremonial functions.

Search the reason of differences in the history terms of development of country, in the features of its culture, economy and socio-political life.

Form of rule – it is the method of organization of state sovereignty, principles and mechanism of co-operation of its structural elements.

Modem states inherent two forms of ruling: monarchy and republic.

A monarchy is characterized by the inherited transmission of power to the chairman of the state, and hr/she is not derivative from some other power and electors. Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Japan are the patterns of parliamentary monarchies.

Another basic form of a government is a republic.

Republic is the form of government under which the higher state authorities are elected by people for a definite term.

The republican form of government is as an alternative to a monarchy. The majority of modem states have the republican form of government.

In our time there are three basic varieties of the republican government: presidential, parliamentary and mixed (semipresidential) republics.

A presidential republic is characterized by the fact that a president combines the plenary powers of the head of the state and the head of government; there is no prime minister and the legislative, executive and judicial functions of power are strictly divided. The president leads the internal and external policy, represents the state on the international arena and is the supreme commander –in- chief of the army.

The president is elected by peoples directly, and not by the parliament. The government is formed by the president and is subordinate to him, but not to the parliament. As a result of the existence of the clear system of inhibitions and counterbalances the president can not dismiss a parliament, however he can set a veto to the decisions and bills of the parliament. Thus, a parliament has a right to initiate the procedure of impeachment that means prosecute the president for the crime or some unconstitutional actions. The USA and Brazil are the examples of such form of government.

A parliamentary republic is characterized by the principle of supremacy of the parliament; the government is formed by the parliamentary majority and is accountable to a parliament. The executive power is concentrated in hands of the government that is led by the prime minister. The president in most cases is elected by the parliament and has the limited plenary powers, executing, as a rule, representative functions. In this sense his/her political functions are closely approximate to the functions of a monarch in parliamentary monarchies. The parliament has the right to pass a vote of no confidence in the government and it retires. However, the president in accordance with the proposal of the prime minister has the right to dissolve the parliament and to call early election. The classic model of

the parliamentary republic exists in Italy and

Federal Republic of Germany.

The mixed (semipresidential) republic is characterized by the double liability of the government: it is responsible to the president and to the parliament. A semipresidential republic to a certain extent has a propensity to the parliamentary or presidential republics. The president can dismiss the parliament and call new election. The parliament can also pass a vote of no confidence in the government, however, the mechanism of his/her retirement is difficult (Ukraine, Russia, France, Finland).

The state system of government is impossible without delegation of some part of the authorities to the local agency, to the concrete political units. According to the type of relations between the central and regional organs of government there are two forms of the territorial state structures: unitary and federal.

The unitary state is characterized by the concentration of the power in the central organs of government. The territory of the unitary state consists of the political units which doesn`t have any political independence. The organs of government created in these political units are limited in the plenary powers and controlled directly or indirectly by the central organs of government.

They must work in accordance with the normative acts adopted by the central organs, and their own rule-proclaiming activity is exceptionally inferior.

Ukraine, France, Turkey, Japan belong to the countries with the unitary form of state structure .

The federal state is the state formed as the union of a few territorial units. These territorial units have certain independence within bounds of the competence distributed between them and the center. The subjects of federation have their legislation and considerable plenary powers (The USA, Federal Republic of Germany, Russian Federation).

Confederation is another form of the state pattern. Confederation is a union of independent, sovereign states and is created on basis of the agreement with the purpose of common problems and tasks solution, pursuing a common policy in definite areas.

Further reading

Monarchy

A monarchy, from the Greek "one" is a form of government in which a monarch, usually a single person, is the head of a state.

Many countries throughout the medieval ages developed their monarch and had many rows with their parliaments. This is evident in England. The civl war was caused by the fall out between the two parties. This idea eventually spread to the French Parliament (for instance) and so they also had a Civil War.

Monarchies were formed through conquest, popular sovereignty, greed, tradition, political necessity and an opportunity to exploit certain situations. In most monarchies, the monarch holds their position for life and passes the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die. In a few republics the head of state, often styled president, might remain in office for life, but most are elected for a term of office, after which he or she must step down, and any successors must then also be elected. There are currently 31 monarchs reigning over 45 extant sovereign monarchies in the world; the disconnect in numbers between monarchs and countries is explained by the fact that the sixteen Commonwealth realms - vast geographic areas including the trans-continental realms of Canada and Australia - are separate realms of one Sovereign in personal union; and one other monarchy, Andorra, has two non-resident foreign (French and Spanish) co-monarchs.

The term monarchy is also used to refer to the people (especially the dynasty, also known as

royalty) and institutions that make up the royal or imperial establishment, or to the realm over which the monarch reigns. Monarchs serve as symbols of continuity and statehood. Today, the extent of a monarchy actual powers varies from monarchy to monarchy. In constitutional monarchies, wherein sovereignty rests formally with the crown but politically with the people(usually the electorate, as represented by a parliament), the monarch now usually serves largely ceremonial functions, except in times of crisis. Many monarchies are constituted by tradition or by codified law, so that the monarch has little real political power; in others the monarch holds some power but is limited from exercising it by popular opinion or precedent; in still others the monarch holds substantial power and may exercise it without limit. However, the majority of monarchs today are bound by rule of law rather than rule of human will.

Monarchy is one of the oldest forms of government, with echoes in the leadership of tribal chiefs. Many monarchs once claimed to rule by divine right or at least by divine grace, ruling either by the will of the god(s) or even claiming to be (incarnated) gods themselves (see theocracy). Monarchs have also been selected by election (either in a broad popular assembly, as in Germanic tribal states; or by a small body, such as in the Holy Roman Empire, and as in lalaysia and the UAE today; or by dynastic succession; or by conquest; or a combination of my number of ways). In some early systems the monarch was overthrown or sacrificed when it became apparent that divine sanction had been withdrawn. A Republic

This article concentrates on the several forms of government of real states and countries that have been termed republic.

A republic is a state or a country that is not led by a hereditary monarch,where the people of that state or country (or at least a part of that people) have impact on its government, and that is usually indicated as a republic.

The detailed organization of republics' governments can vary widely. The first section of his article gives an overview of the distinctions that characterize different types of non-fictional publics. The second section of the article gives short profiles of some of the most influential republics, by way of illustration. A more comprehensive list of republics appears in a separate article. The third section is about how republics are approached as state organizations in political science: in political theory and people governed.

In most modern republics the head of the state is termed a president. Other titles that have been used are consul, doge, archon and many others. In republics that are also democracies: the head of state is selected as the result of an election. This election can be indirect, such as if a council of some sort is elected by the people, and this council then elects the head of state. In these kinds of republics the usual term for a president is in the range of four to six years. In some countries the constitution limits the number of terms the same person can be elected as resident.

Also it is important to distinguish a form of the state association such as confederation. Confederation is an alliance of independent, sovereign states, and is created on the basis of a contract to jointly solve problems and challenges of a common policy in certain areas.

A monarchy is a form of government in which sovereignty is actually or nominally embodied in a single individual (the monarch).

Forms of monarchy differ widely based on the level of legal autonomy the monarch holds in governance, the method of selection of the monarch, and any predetermined limits on the length of their tenure. When the monarch has no or few legal restraints in state and political matters, it is called an absolute monarchy and is a form of autocracy. Cases in which the monarch's discretion is formally limited (most common today) are called constitutional monarchies. In hereditary monarchies, the office is passed through inheritance within a family group, whereas elective monarchies are selected by some system of voting. Historically these systems are most commonly combined, either formally or informally, in some manner. (For instance, in some elected monarchies only those of certain pedigrees are considered eligible, whereas many hereditary monarchies have legal requirements regarding the religion, age, gender, mental capacity, and other factors that act both as de facto elections and to create situations of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election.) Finally, there are situations in which the expiration of a monarch’s reign is set based either on the calendar or on the achievement of certain goals (repulse of invasion, for instance.) The effect of historical and geographic difference along each of these three axes is to create widely divergent structures and traditions defining ―monarchy.‖

Monarchy was the most common form of government into the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent, at least at the national level. Where it exists, it now often takes the form of constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role, but exercises limited or no political power pursuant to a constitution or tradition which allocates governing authority elsewhere. Currently, 44 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state, 16 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognize Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. All European monarchies are constitutional ones, with the exception of the Vatican City, but sovereigns in the smaller states exercise greater political influence than in the larger. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, Jordan, Malaysia and Morocco "reign, but do not rule" although there is considerable variation in the amount of authority they wield. Although they reign under constitutions, the monarchs of Brunei, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Swaziland appear to continue to exercise more political influence than any other single source of authority in their nations, either by constitutional mandate or by tradition.

LECTURE: INSTITUTIONS OF REPRESENTATION AND

MATCHING OF INTERESTS

Outline

1. Political party: essence, structure, formation genesis.

2. Types of political parties.

3. Party systems.

4. Public organizations

Point № 1

In the political system there is a number of institutions, performing the similar duty of interest intermediation. Among them it is possible to number parliament, political parties, lobbyism, corporativism and neocorporativism, mass medias. This part will concern such institutions, as parties, lobbyism, corporativism and neocorporativism, mass medias. Every institutions of representation and matching of interests possesses the specific of realization of function of articulation and aggregating of interests. In one countries an important role in the system of representation of interests play political parties, in others – lobbyism or corporativism and neocorporativism.

The prospects of the social development in a great deal depend on how widely and variedly the large sections of the public take part in the political life. The world experience showed that the process of the participation in the politics goes through the multi-party system, various institutions of civil society.

1. Political party: essence, structure, formation genesis

The political party is the specialized public organization that unites the most active adherents of one or another aims and is seeking to take and use the political power.

The term "party" in translation from Latin means "part", "group". He became widespread as early as the Ancient world. So, for example, Aristotle mentioned the parties of the habitants of mountain, plain and coastal strip, also he called parties the groups of politicians of the leader`s inner circle (party of Caesar, of Sulla etc.). The same concept was used for the description of the group of people governing the state. However the political parties proper in the generally used sense began to appear only in the making of parliamentarianism (XVIII^th - XIX^th c.).

In the political science the following evolution of the political parties is generally accepted, it was offered by М. Weber: aristocratic groups, political clubs, mass parties.

The essential signs of any political party, by M. Weber, are: aspiration to use power in accordance with one's own vision of the solution of the political and other public problems; ideological and political orientation; spontaneous activity on voluntary lines.

In political science there are a lot of approaches to definition of party : the liberal approach interprets it as an ideological association; the institutional approach understands party as the organization that acts in the state system; the traditional approach attributes the definition of party to the electoral process, nomination of candidates, pre-election fight, to the aspiration to capture legislative and executive power; the Marxist approach looks at the definition of party from the class positions, considering it the most conscious and organized part of the class, defending its interests.

It is necessary to mention the legal approach to the definition of parties that without fail regulates: political status and functions of party; permanent character of activity; indispensable participation in the election; degree of political participation; level of organization; possibilities in comparison with other political institutions; number of party members and even name. Legally the unconstantly acting organizations as electors` unions, different associations etc. are not considered parties.

The major state procedure that presents the official recognition of party and gives the state defence to it, under the legal approach, is registration in executive authority. Only when the party passes the official state registration, it acquire a righ to the participation in the election, tax remissions, government financing etc.

Today in the political science the following features of the political party are distinguished:

at first, every party is the transmitter of the ideology or, at least, expresses a

concrete orientation, vision of the world and man; secondly, party is organization; the stable and relatively long-term association

of people; thirdly, a purpose of party is an attainment and use of the political power (in

the multi-party system one party rarely can attain power; here we talk about participating in realization of power functions or about incorporation in the political system); fourthly, every party aims to provide itself the support of people - up to

membership or active membership (activists) in it.

Political party has an internal and external structure.

The internal structure is presented by leaders and rank-and-file members. The leaders subdivide, in turn, on a top management and functionary. A top management is leaders of party, its the most authoritative and experienced figures, ideologists, brain; the top management determines the general policy, concrete aims and means to an end, elaborates the program of party. The functionary is party activists that work at all levels, both in the central and in the local organs of party; the functionary organize work at all levels of party and champion its policy. Rank-and-file members, as a rule, work in the primary organizations and act in accordance with the policy of the party, execute the tasks of party leaders.

Id est the structure of the political party includes:

- party leader;

- party bureaucracy;

- brain staff;

- party ideology;

- party activists;

- Rank-and-file members.

External structure is represented by the people who are in sympathy with the party program, "party electorate", id est those, who votes for it on elections.

An important question of the development of the political party is financing of its activity. The basic sources of the material security of the political parties are: membership dues; means from sponsors, profits from the party activity (mainly publishing); means from the state budget (in the period of election campaign); receipts from the foreign sources (in some countries it is forbidden by the law).

The primary purposes of the political party are: forming of the public opinion; political education of citizens; expression of the opinions of citizens of any questions of public life, bringing these opinions to the wide public`s and public authorities' knowledge; nomination of (representative) legislative authority and representative local government candidates for election, participation in the said election and in the work of the said organs.

The functions of the party show more clearly the purpose of the party; there are three groups of functions of the party: political, ideological and social functions.

Political functions: race for power, recruitment of the political leaders and power elite (participating in all the political processes and being, essentially, one of its main mechanisms of the distribution and redistribution of the political power party`s primary objective is an attainment and use of the political power in order to achieve the goals set in their programs; the political elite of all levels is selected from the leaders of the political parties).

Ideological functions: creation of the party ideology and political doctrines, party propaganda (every party elaborates and corrects its ideological and political orientation).

Social functions: social representation and socialization of citizens (every political party relies on the certain groups and layers of the population and expresses their interests).

The content of the functions executed by the political parties allows to formulate the socially important problems which they solve enough efficiently: at first, the political parties provide connection of population with state structures, thereby they replace the spontaneous (and, consequently, unforeseeable) forms of political activity of the population; secondly, the parties are one of the most effective forms of overcoming of the political apathy and passivity of citizens; thirdly, campaigning for the distribution and redistribution of the political power, parties favour the peaceful realization of these processes that allow to avoid convulsion.

Thus the political party (from lat. Pars - part, group, department) is a political institution that represents interests and aims of the different social groups. By means of this institution people express their collective demands to the state, communicate and cooperate with it.

Political party

The political party is an institution which expresses interests of the certain social group (or groups) and/or ideology and aspires to the attainment of the state power for the realization of these interests.

John Sartory suggested to consider parties as a basic "mediator between society and government". It means that parties formulate and translate to the public authorities the interests that are formed in the different social groups. Specific of the party as a political institution is that it doesn`t only formulates the specific social interests but also aspires to their realization by means of the public organs of power. For this reason parties and their candidates become the basic participants of the political fight and political competition in the democratic political system.

Three levels are distinguished in the organizational structure of the party.

The lowest level is represented by the electors who vote for the party and its representatives, but officially are not its members. It`s the social base of the party.

The primary cells of the parties are the basis of the mean level; they are formed, as a rule, on the basis of the election districts. These cells consist of the party activists. Their primary purpose is to raise ordinary electors during the elections. The general management is carried out by the professional party apparat. And this party apparat the organize the carrying out of the election. Usually it includes the analytical and financial departments.

The top level consists of the party representatives from the structures of the state power. It is a party elite which simultaneously can be part of the administrative and political elite.

The researchers of parties are interested in the stimuli of the party activism.

There are two sorts of the stimuli: collective and selective.

The collective stimuli are related to the individual need to find the group identity. Bluntly speaking people join parties in order to find to people who share their ideas, to get rid of loneliness. The collective stimuli are considerably influenced by the ideological preferences.

The selective stimuli are related to the aspiring to get the individual benefit from the party activity.

In the making of the party the collective stimuli prevail over the selective and are fundamental. However with the development of the party as a political institution the selective stimuli begin to play a dominant role.

Point № 2.

Based on the different criteria there are different types of parties in the political science.

1. Based on the origin there are parliamentary and extraparliamentary parties. The parliamentary parties, come from the parliamentary factions, are the associations that aspire to win the representative body election. The extraparliamentary parties appraise the activity of the representative bodies and fight for the deputy mandates. Their origin is related to the development of mass movements and raise of the political participation of the working class.

2. Based on the position in the political system the party is divided into governmental and opposition. The governmental parties that win the election play a leading role in the forming of the government. The opposition parties present the interest of political minority and criticize the governing parties and their policy.

3. Based on the type of the organization the parties are divided into cadre and mass. The cadre party in opinion of the French sociologist M. Duverger is a grouping of famous people for the preparation of the elections, realization of the election campaign, contacts with electors. Mass parties are the well organized associations whose basic features are: general, active membership, certain ideology and world view. It is characterized by the strict discipline, absolute observance the adherents of the regulations and program.

4. Based on the ideological orientations the parties are divided into liberal, conservative, communist, socialist, fascist, neofascist parties.

5. Sometimes parties are divided based on the program aims. In this case parties are subdivided into extreme left, left, centrist, right and extremely right. Communist parties belong to the extreme left, socialist and social democratic are among left, the moderate parties are among centrist, they aspire to compromises, collaboration and stability, the liberal and conservative parties are considered right and fascist and neofascist are extreme right.

The program aims of the governing parties correlate with the level of the social expenditure for the public welfare. So, the left government is characterized by the high level of the government spending on social needs. Prevailing of the right parties stipulates the low level of the government spending on the social sphere in the economic developed countries.

The political party typology is based on a few criteria.

The first criterion is the organizational structure and type of membership in the party. Based on this criterion parties are divided into mass and personal.

Mass parties were formed out of parliaments and recruit their social base mainly from the lower social strata: working people, peasants, religious groups (as a rule mass parties have left orientation, they are characterized by the high degree of ideologizing which is used for mass political mobilization; the government in mass parties is realized by the professional politicians, party bureaucracy, the members of the parties not only pay membership dues but also participate in the party affairs).

The cadre parties attain their aims by the selection of personal from among the authoritative political figures (cadre parties aren`t numerous, they are formed round the group of political leaders, the basis of their organizational structure is a political committee, the membership is and the organizational structure is amorphism).

The political positions and ideological principles of parties are the second criterion. It can be communist, socialistic, social democratic and other parties.

The third criterion is an internals degree. On the basis of this criterion parties are subdivided into the centralized and decentralized.

A fourth criterion is position in the political system of the society. The parties are divided into parliamentary and unparliamentary (vanguard). The parliamentary party connects the race for power mainly with representative institutions election (the organizational activity it carries out mainly during the election campaign aspiring to the conquest of maximally possible number of mandates and realization of the policy through the parliament and government). The vanguard party does not limit to fighting for deputy mandates, but carries out an extensive extraparliamentary activity, give much attention to the ideological and educator work, to the "street policy".

A fifth criterion is attitude of parties toward the actual political system. On the basis of this criterion they are subdivided into governmental and opposition.

A sixth criterion is political "weight". Four types of parties are distinguished:

majority party is the party that gained absolute majority of mandates and right to adopt its policy; party with the majority calling - in the situation of alternation of parties that are in power it can win the next elections; dominant party is the party that gained plurality of the deputy places; minority party is a party that has a minimum quantity of mandates.

There are other criteria. For example, based on the communication style of the leaders and rank-and-file members the political parties are subdivided into authoritarian and democratic. Based on how much the parties represent public layers there are integrative and representative parties. Based on the place in the political aspect there are left, right and centrist parties. The parties can be legal, illegal, semilegal. Based on the nature of the political activity political parties are divided into moderate, rational and extremist.

Thus there is a variety of the types of the political parties in the world.

Point № 3.

The political parties of one or another state as a rule cooperate with each other and form the party systems. The party system is an aggregate of the stable relations of the parties that participate in the realization of the political power. The party systems resist the non-party forms of the organization of the political power. The political system rules out the functioning of the parties in this case. Today the nonparty systems exist approximately in 20 countries (for example, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Oman). Here are the reasons of absence of the parties: absence of the social preconditions for the creation of parties (Bhutan); the country is theocratic, the temporal policy is absent (Vatican); prohibition of parties (Ghana, Jordan) etc.

The party system means the mechanism of competition and cooperation of the parties in the fight for power and in the process of its realization. There are one-party, two-party and multi-party systems.

The fundamental features of the one-party system is a monopoly of one party in power. These systems can exist in the countries with the totalitarian and authoritarian systems. The one-party systems are divided into "really" one-party, i.e. systems in which the only one party governs, and "artificially" or formally multiparty, where in spite of the existence of a few parties the power is controlled by the predominant party-hegemon. This system existed in many countries of Eastern Europe in 1989-1990.

The two-party system is characterized by the permanent competition between two basic parties. Exactly these parties have essential influence on the electors. Other parties don`t have considerable political weight. This party system exists in the USA and Great Britain.

The multi-party system is notable for the political competition of a few parties. Based on the quantity of parties the party systems are divided into moderate (from 3 to 5) and extreme (from 6 and more) pluralism systems, and none of them can independently be in power. As a result it is necessity to form coalitions both for the forming of the government and for the interior parliamentary activity.

According to Arend Lijphart the two-party system is characteristic for the majority model of democracy, and multi-party - for the consensus model.

However the simple count of parties not always allows to judge about the type of the party system. Giovanni Sartori find out that the multi-party system can include parties with the antisystem orientation. Based on the existence or absence of such parties he distinguished the polarized and non-polarized party systems. The polarized party systems are characterized by the existence of the authoritative party of offsystem opposition, and non-polarized, vice versa, by the consensus between the most influential parties in relation to the basic political norms and "rules of play ".

The multi-party systems can be also divided into the systems with dominant party and without dominant party. In the Scandinavian countries socialistic parties prevailed over a long period of time, in Italy it`s Christian Democratic party, in Japan it`s Liberal Democratic party. The dominant parties are absent in Switzerland, Netherlands, Finland.

Party systems

Based on the quantity of parties: one-party system, two-party system, two and a halfparty system, multi-party system: of limited and extreme pluralism Based on the type of relationships of the parties: polarized, non-polarized

Based on the existence or absence of the dominant party: with dominant party, without dominant party

The different qualitative and quantitative characteristics are used for the description of the party systems.

One of the basic quality criteria is a type of the political regime under which the party system functions. Based on this criterion the party systems are divided into democratic, authoritarian and totalitarian.

At the same time in the political science the most widespread criterion of the classification of the party systems is quantitative. On its basis the Italian political scientist Giovanni Sartori elaborated the seven-element classification of the party systems: one-party system; hegemonic-party system; dominant-party system; twoparty system; system of limited pluralism; system of extreme pluralism; atomized system.

The one-party system is characterized by the monopolization of the political activity by this party. It becomes the leading force of the state. The main political decisions are made by this party. The party merges with the state. Other parties are forbidden. Such system is in Cuba, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, until recently the same system was in Soviet Union, Romania, Albania.

The hegemonic-party system. Such system was in the majority of the socialistic countries of Eastern Europe. In GDR, for example, the other parties are not prohibited in spite of the one party (communist) government. The characteristic feature of this system is the formal existence of a few political parties in the country, but real government of one of them. Other parties support it, there is no opposition (actually such system functions in China, where beside the communist party that has all political power, there are four political parties).

The dominant-party system is characterized by the equal possibilities of all parties (that is envisaged by the law), however one party is in power for a long time. Till recently the Liberal democratic party of Japan and Indian national congress represented such type of party.

The two-party system. Irrespective of the quantity of parties in the country only two parties are the major consideration and are able to hold power changing each other. The classic example is the USA, where the Republican and Democratic parties change each other. There are other parties in the country, but they do not have an important influence on the political life.

The system of limited pluralism. It is one of the types of the multi-party system, this system is oriented to the participation in the government of all parties. The ideological orientation of these parties is not very different. It is Belgium that has this type of the party system.

The system of extreme pluralism. It is another type of the multi-party system. Firstly, the parties of this system are against the actual social and politic regime of the country. Secondly, the opposition parties are from both side of the government. They criticize the government on the right and on the left, and also criticize each other. Thirdly, in such system one or the group of parties occupies the position of "center".

The atomized party system. It is the multi-party system that has tens and even hundreds of parties (Bolivia, Malaysia).

It should be noted that not the least role in the political systems play the opposition parties that differ according to their aims. The unappeasable opposition is against the actual social and political regime, its main aim is to change it; this opposition is not satisfied by any government acting under this regime. The opposition against a concrete government that is loyal in relation to the political regime. The constructive opposition supports one activity of government and at the same time criticizes other.

Thus the party systems are an aggregate of the stable relations of parties of different type and their relations with the state and other institutions of power.

Point № 4.

In the political process parties cooperate with the public associations. A public association is a voluntarily, autonomous unit created on the citizens` initiative and united on the basis of the common interests for the achievement of the common goals.

There are two basic forms of public association: social organization and social movement.

The social organization is the public association based on membership created for the defence of the common interests and achievement of statute aims of the united citizens. The features of the social organization are: premeditation of the creation (it is formed with a certain, beforehand set goal); created on the official ground; formal organizational unity on the basis of statute, stability of structure, stable relations between members; system of the fixed directions, positions and roles that coordinate the members activity.

Among the social organizations it is necessary to distinguish the political and unpolitical social organizations. The political social organizations are created by the parties, but formally they aren`t included in the organizational structure of the party, but pursue its policy among the different groups of population and in one or another measure are subordinate to its administration. For example, one of the largest parties of Germany - the Christian Democratic union founded eight social organizations, which pursue a policy of the party among the young people, women, wage labourers, middle layers etc. The unpolitical social organizations are the element of civil society. They are created on the citizens` initiative in order to satisfy their necessities and interests. These organizations can perform the political duty and participate in the political life in case of the necessity of the use of the power institutions during the rearrangement of the economic, social, spiritual and informative resources (during election campaign, in the process of lobbying and etc.).

According to the world political practice the trade unions have a special place among the social organizations. A trade union is non-governmental social organization of working people of the same profession or working in one industry of production. The basic functions of the trade unions are: defence of economic and social interests of worker; cultural education; socialization of worker; representation of interests of the wage earner relatively to their labour and way of life.

In some cases people that aspire to realize their interests and participate in the political life of society don`t want to create their own party organizations and to maintain the rigorous party discipline. They don`t trust the existent in the society parties either. In such situation the citizens create a social movement. The social movement is a solidary activity of the large group of citizens in order to achieve a considerable political purpose. Its social base is extremely heterogeneous because of the engagement in the policy of the wide sections of the population. The social movement can include people of different social, ethnic, confessional and other layers. A party or a party block can be the center of the social movement. As a rule the social movements arise spontaneously in order to perform a task. Usually they break up when the task is performed.

The social movements differ from the political parties mainly in the following points. At first, in spite of the fact that these movements try to influence the authorities in order to perform their tasks, however they don`t climb to power. Secondly, the social and political movements don`t have the strong center. Thirdly, the collective membership is widespread in the social movements. It is not allowed in most every parties. Fourthly, the ideological and political orientation of the social movements is wider and more vague in comparison with the political parties. But the purpose is more concrete. It is one of the reasons of magnetic force of the social movements for the wide sections of the population.

The social movements are divided into the national (within the framework of one country); regional; continental; world. The most active social movements are the followings:

Women`s movement. The women of different ages, nationalities, professions, social layers are united in this movement. A primary purpose of the women`s movement is defence of women`s rights.

Anti-war movement. Unites millions of representatives practically of all sections of population. A primary objective is liquidation of the threat of war.

Ecological movement. It is the movement in defence of the environment. The "Green" demand: perfection of the legislation for benefit of the protection of nature; use of untraditional and renewable energy sources; closing of harmful productions; they are against the different forms of contamination of environment. A primary objective of the ecological movement is prevention of the global ecological crisis.

Human rights movement. This movement unites organizations that fight against the encroachment on the individual rights.

Youth movement. It campaigns for the rights for young people, actively participates in the fight for peace against war, conducts the environmental action etc.

National movement. The participants of this movement campaign for the revival of national culture, language, traditions etc.

There are also non-alignment movement; movement against racial and national discrimination; movement for the establishment of the new economic order; movement of peasants for the land and social rights; pacificist movements of scientists, doctors, lawyers and other social movements.

Thus the social movements are neither an alternative to political parties nor stage in their forming. They perform their tasks and functions, different from the tasks and functions of the political parties. The movements reflect the public mood, interests and feelings, they are the large political force aimed at the achievement of the certain goal.

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VALUATION CRITERIA
OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FOREIGN STUDENTS OF
ALL THE SPECIALITIES OF THE DISCIPLINE "POLITICAL SIENCE"

"The Political Science" course belongs to the normative disciplines that are an inalienable part of the preparation of the students of all the specialities. The programmatic material of the discipline of different type and level of complexity is the object of the evaluation of the student knowledge. The mastering of this material is accordingly checked up during the current module control and the written examination.
The main role in the the evaluation of the studies quality via the establishment of the educational achievements level are the personality results of the cognitive activity that reflect the standard for all the specialities theoretical and practical competences, acquired by the students during the mastering of the discipline "The political science".
Based on the volume and the depth of the obtained results, the degree of independence in the execution of the tasks, ability to use the knowledge in the new situations there are the levels of the educational achievements of the students that are evaluated on the 100-point scale according to the requirements of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS).
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