Units of language on different levels are studied by traditional branches of linguistics such as phonetics that deals with speech sounds and intonation; lexicology that treats words, their meaning and vocabulary structure, grammar that analyses forms of words and their function in a sentence which is studied by syntax.

1. The problem with the definition of stylistics deals both with the object and the material of studies. When we speak of the stylistic value of a text we cannot proceed from the level-biased approach that is so logically described through the hierarchical system of sounds, words and clauses. Not only may each of these linguistic units be charged with a certain stylistic meaning but the interaction of these elements, as well as the structure and composition of the whole text are stylistically pertinent. Stylistics – a branch of L, which studies lang. styles, their expressive means and stylistic devices.

2. Another problem has to do with a whole set of special linguistic means that create what we call «style». Style may be belles-letters or scientific or neutral or low colloquial or archaic or pompous, or a combination of those. Style may also be typical of a certain writer Shakespearean style, Dickensian style, etc. There is the style of official documents, the style of social etiquette and even an individual style of a speaker or writer—his idiolect. Stylistics deals with styles. Different scholars have defined style differently at different times. All these definitions point out the systematic and functionally determined character of the notion of style.

The authors of handbooks on German (E. Riesel, M. P. Bran-des), French (Y. S. Stepanov, R. G. Piotrovsky, K. A. Dolinin), English (I. R. Galperin, I. V. Arnold, Y. M. Skrebnev, V. A. Maltsev, V. A. Kukharenko, A. N. Morokhovsky and others) and Russian (M. N. Kozhina, I. B. Golub) stylistics propose more or less analogous systems of styles based on a broad subdivision of all styles into two classes: literary and colloquial and their varieties. These generally include from three to five functional styles.

Prof. Y. M. Skrebnev suggests a most unconventional viewpoint on the number of styles. He maintains that the number of sublanguages and styles is infinite (if we include individual styles, styles mentioned in linguistic literature such as telegraphic, oratorical, reference book, Shakespearean, short story, or the style of literature on electronics, computer language, etc.).

Style – the set of specific features of a text or a group of homogenous text which differentiate it from all the others groups of texts.

3. Stylistics is that branch of linguistics, which studies the principles, and effect of choice and usage of different language elements in rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of communication. Therefore it is concerned with such issues as 1) the aesthetic function of language; 2) expressive means in language; 3) synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea; 4) emotional colouring in language; 5) a system of special devices called stylistic devices; 6) the splitting of the literary language into separate systems called style; 7) the interrelation between language and thought; 8) the individual manner of an author in making use of the language . These issues cover the overall scope of stylistic research and can only be representative of stylistics as a discipline of linguistic study taken as a whole- each of them is concerned with only a limited area of research.

2. Types of stylistic research and branches of stylistics.

Literary and linguistic stylistics

According to the type of stylistic research we can distinguish literary stylistics and lingua-stylistics. They have some meeting points or links in that they have common objects of research. Consequently they have certain areas of cross-reference. Both study the common ground of: 1) the literary language from the point of view of its variability; 2) the idiolect (individual speech) of a writer; 3) poetic speech that has its own specific laws.

The points of difference proceed from the different points of analysis. While lingua-stylistics studies functional styles (in their development and current state); the linguistic nature of the expressive means of the language, their systematic character and their functions. Literary stylistics is focused on the composition of a work of art, various literary genres, the writer's outlook.

Comparative stylistics is connected with the contrastive study of more than one language. It analyses the stylistic resources not inherent in a separate language but at the crossroads of two languages, or two literatures and is obviously linked to the theory of translation.

Decoding stylistics A comparatively new branch of stylistics, which can be traced back to the works of L. V. Shcherba, B. A. Larin, M. Riffaterre, R. Jackobson and other scholars of the Prague linguistic circle. Each act of speech has the performer, or sender of speech and the recipient. The former does the act of encoding and the latter the act of decoding the information. If we analyse the text from the author's (encoding) point of view we should consider the epoch, the historical situation, the personal Political, social and aesthetic views of the author.

Functional stylistics Special mention should be made of functional stylistics which is a branch of lingua-stylistics that investigates functional styles, that is special sublanguages or varieties of the national language such as scientific, colloquial, business, publicist and so on.

However many types of stylistics may exist or spring into existence they will all consider the same source material for stylistic analysis of sounds, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts. That's why any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level-forming branches that include:

Stylistic lexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and the interrelation (or interplay) of the connotative and denotative meanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic connotations of the word and the context.

Stylistic Phonetics (or Phonostylistics) is engaged in the study of styleforming phonetic features of the text. It describes the prosodic features of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in different types of speech (colloquial or oratory or recital).

Stylistic grammar Stylistic Morphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of specific grammatical forms and categories, such as the number of the noun, or the peculiar use of tense forms of the verb, etc.

Stylistic Syntax is one of the oldest branches of stylistic studies that grew out of classical rhetoric. The material in question lends itself readily to analysis and description. Stylistic syntax has to do with the expressive order of words, types of syntactic links (asyndeton, polysyndeton), figures of speech (antithesis, chiasmus, etc.).

3. Varieties of Language.

The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation, which is predetermined by two distinct factors, namely, the actual situation in which the language is being used and the aim of the communication.

The actual situation of the communication has evolved two varieties of language – the spoken and the written. The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a number of self-sufficient systems (functional styles of language). Of the two varieties of language, diachronically the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. Each of these varieties has developed its own features and qualities which in many ways may be regarded ‘as opposed to each other. The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used and in which it develops, can be described as the presence of an interlocutor. The written variety, on the contrary, presupposes the absence of an interlocutor.

The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written, in that 'the human voice comes into play. This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation, give additional information. Spoken L – spontaneous, momentary, can’t be detached from the user. Written l – lives together with the idea it expresses, can be detached (to look upon the utterance more objectively).

The written language has to seek means to compensate for what it lacks. Therefore the written utterance will inevitably be more diffuse, more explanatory. In other words, it has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to be explicit enough.

The forms of the written language replace those of the spoken language when dissemination of ideas is the purpose in view. It is the written variety of language with its careful organization and deliberate choice of words and constructions that can have political, cultural and educational influence on a wide and scattered public. In the long process of its functioning, the written language has acquired its own characteristic features emanating from the need to amplify the utterance, which is an essential point in the written language.

Written l: precise means, abundance of conjunctions, adverbial phrases, connectors, complicated sentence units, bookish space-wasters, hypotaxis( subordination), long utterances, Spoken l: contracted forms, dialects, morph/phon. Violations of grammar rules, ample use of intensifying words, ellipsis, direct w.o. questions, communicative transposition, fill-up words, vernacular (doesn’t=don’t)intensifyers, unfinished sent.,tautological subject, string of sentences without any linkers, omition of auxiliary.

4. Meaning from a stylistic point of view.

Stylistics is a domain where meaning assumes paramount importance. This is so because the term ‘meaning’ is applied not only to words, word-combinations, sentences but also to the manner of expression into which the matter is cast. The linguistic term meaning has been defined in so many ways that there appears an urgent need to clarify it; particularly in view of the fact that in so many lexical, grammatical and phonetic SDs this category is treated differently.

The problem of meaning in general linguistics deals mainly with such aspects of the term as the interrelation between meaning and concept, meaning and sign, meaning and referent. The general tendency is to regard meaning as something stable at a given period of time. This is reasonable, otherwise no dictionary would be able to cope with the problem of defining the meaning of words. Moreover, no communication would be possible.

For stylistic purpose out of a variety of meanings, belonging to a word we single out the following three types of lexical meanings: 1) logical meaning (the base of the concept of the given thing or phenomenon), 2) nominal meaning (names of beings or things=prober nouns- indicate a particular object out of the class) and 3) emotive meaning (expresses the feelings and emotions). Therefore the emotive meaning bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them. (ex. I felt so darned lonely).

These three lexical meanings form the semantic structure of the word. Apart from them there exists one more lexical meaning which appears only within the given context. This is the contextual meaning. (imposed on words by the context and gives the reader clues to the denotative (literal or specific) and connotative (interpreted or emotional) meanings of words). This category also takes under observation meanings which have fallen out of use. In stylistics it is important to discriminate shades or nuances of meaning, to atomize the meaning, the component parts of which are called the semes, i.e. the smallest units of which meaning of a word consists.

Lexical meaning refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary. Lexical meaning is thus a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept. Lexical meaning can include several types of m: denotative (referential, logical) m (the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept – the definition of the word), which is always presented in a word and informs of a subject of communication; and connotative m, or secondary meaning, which can be something suggested or implied by a word or thing, and which informs about the participants and conditions of communication (extra-ling. factors);

The list and specifications of connotational meanings vary with different linguistic schools and individual scholars and include such entries as pragmatic (directed at the perlocutionary effect of utterance), associative (connected, through individual psychological or linguistic associations, with related and nonrelated notions), ideological, or conceptual (revealing political, social, ideological preferences of the user), evaluative (stating the value of the indicated notion),emotive (revealing the emotional layer of cognition and perception),expressive (aiming at creating the image of the object in question), stylistic (indicating “the register”, or the situation of the communication).(kucharenko)

Grammatical meaning refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system. Grammatical meaning can thus be adequately called “structural meaning”.

5. General considerations of stylistic classification of the vocabulary.

The word-stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. The whole of the word-stock of the English language may be divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect.

The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character, unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all.

The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character. The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. common literary: 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. Common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

6. Neutral, Common literary and common colloquial vocabulary.

Neutral words are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. The neutral stock of words is so prolific (плодотворный) in the production of new meanings. their faculty for assuming new meanings and generating new stylistic variants is often quite amazing. This generative power of the neutral words in the English language is multiplied by the very nature of the language itself. It has been estimated that most neutral English words are of monosyllabic character, as, in the process of development from Old English to Modern English, most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes. This phenomenon has led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word-building. Word compounding is not so productive as conversion or word derivation, where a new word is formed because of a shift in the part of speech in the first case and by the addition of an affix in the second. The neutral stratum of words, as the term itself implies, has no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinctions in the sphere of usage.

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word. The reason for this lies in certain objective features of the literary layer of words – one of them is that literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary and colloquial, can be formed which stand in contrasting relation.

Common colloquial vocabulary borders both on the neutral voc. and on the special colloquial voc. Common colloquial words and set expressions lack homogeneity. Some of the lexical units belonging to this strarum are close to non-standard colloquial groups (jargonisms, professionalisms).Emotionally and stylistically coloured.

Colloquial – kid, daddy; Neutral – child, father; Literary- infant,parent. These synonyms are not only stylistic but ideographic as well, i. e. there is a definite, though slight, semantic difference between the words. Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a markedly obvious tendency to pass into that layer. The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very easily pass into the neutral layer. The lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral, on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are blurred.

7. Special literary vocabulary: terms, poetic, archaic (archaic, obsolescent, obsolete), barbarisms (foreign), literary coinages (nonce-words)

TERM is generally very easily coined and easily accepted and is predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science.

Features

· Conventional character

· fulfill their basic function of bearing exact reference to a given concept

· its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art.

· belong to the style of language of science, but also used in other styles (newspaper style, publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language). But their function in this case changes.

Term as SD ( when used in other than science styles)

When used in the belles-lettres style when a term is used in such a way that two meanings are materialized simultaneously. (the pseudo-biological and medical aspect of the message—this being contained in the words ‘sort’, ‘creature’, ‘little animal’, ‘species', ‘habitats’, ‘myopia’)

The function – 1)to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, 2) to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. Ex.: prosecutor, incarceration, a verdict of guilty, defendant.

POETIC WORDS are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. They color the utterance with a certain air of loftiness, but fail to produce genuine feeling of delight. Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. ( The sky is the welkin; the valley is the vale; fire Is the devouring element). Satirical function in ordinary environment, no polysemy, evoke emotive meaning, deviation of normal in search of innovation ( coinages)

ARCHAIC words, that disappeared, leaving no trace of their existence. Stages in the aging process of words: Obsolescent words are at the beginning of the aging process, as they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. (belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language (pronouns thou, thee, thy)). obsolete words have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community: e. g. methlnks (= it seems to me). archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modem English, words that were in use in Old English and which now have become unrecognizable, e. g. troth (—faith). Function- the creation of a realistic background to historical novels, convey Local colour, solemn elevated.

BARBARISMS are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue, e. g. chic (stylish); en passant (= in passing). They belong to Eng. Voc-ry

Foreign proper- fulfill terminological function. They are not barbarisms. Such words as ukase, udarnik, soviet, kolkhoz reflect an objective reality but are not familiar to English-speaking communities. Do not belong to the voc-ry,usually graphically marked.

Functions of both barbaris and foreign words: to supply local colour (to depict local conditions of life), to represent non-personal direct speech, to provide local colour as a background to the narrative, to show alien nature,to elevate the language(charm), publicistic – to colour with touch of authority, in belles-latter style –exactifying function.

LITERARY COINAGES (nonce-words) appear because of the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. There are 2 types of newly coined words: terminological coinages which designate newborn concepts (Xerox, Google), and stylistic coinages, which appear because their creators seek expressive utterance (any day we may begin to futurize). Often they appear in newspapers and magazine articles. New words are mainly built by means of affixation and word-compounding. Another type of neologism is the nonce-word – a word, coined to suit one particular occasion. They are created to designate some insignificant subjective idea or evaluation of a thing (I’m wived and mother-in-lawed and cousened).

Function:

1)More economical, brief form of utterance.2) make utterance more pompous and sensational. 3) irony, disapproval, expressive way of converging idea4 ) novelty

8. Special Colloquial vocabulary: slang, jargonisms, professionalisms, dialectal words, vulgarisms, colloquial coinages.

Colloquial words mark the message as informal, non-official, they are widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication (e. g. "dad", "kid).

Slang seems to mean everything that is below the Standard English, deviation from the established norm. It is a language peculiar to a particular group; special and often secret vocabulary used by a class, characterized by clipped or shortened forms, forced figures of speech, phon., morp., synt. peculiarities. Function: give the utterance emotional colouring a subjective evaluation. Ex.: Wanksta - is someone who looks/acts like a gangsta. Humorous, novelty

Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people. The aim – to preserve secrecy within a group. Jargonisms are old words with new meanings imposed on them. There are two types of J: professional J (professionalisms) – picture show – театр действий; and common J (have gradually lost their special quality to promote secrecy , belong to all soc groups and easily understood) – Left wing - Political jargon for liberal, progressive viewpoint.

Professionalisms- words used in a definite trade, profession, people with common interests. Similar to term , difference- rename already existing concepts, belong to non-literary layer. They are formed according to the existing word-building patterns or present existing words in new meanings.They aim at producing a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Ex. Tin-fish – submarine. Function- depict the natural speech of a character, show vocation, education, environment, breeding.

Vulgarisms are expletives and swear word of an abusive character (damn, bloody, to hell – now used as exclamations); obscene (непристойный) words – four-letters words, the use of which is banned. The function is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.

Dialectal words are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong. They are only found in emotive prose. Ex. Belly – желудок. Function: to convey the atmosphere of locality, speech characterisation

Colloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language. They are not new words, but new meanings of existing words. Ex. I’m un-asking him.

9. General Morphology and Stylistic Morphology.

General morphology treats morphemes and grammatical meanings expressed by them in language in general, without regard to their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology studies stylistic potential of gr forms, meanings and categories. Words of all parts of speech have a great stylistic potential. Being placed in an unusual syntagmatic environment which changes their canonized gramm. characteristics and combinability, they acquire stylistic significance.

Acc. to Screbnev: 2 general trends of styl-c significance:

1. synonymy (paradigmatic equivalence or interchangeability of different morphemes (dog-s, cow-s – ox-en phenomen-a, etc.);

2.variability of use of morphological “categorical forms” or of members of the opposition that constitute the grammatical category – “tense”, “person”, etc. (He is coming next Monday; Well, are we feeling better today?)

Word-building expressive means:every particular affix has its own connotational potential. Eg. – ish – is a neutral morheme. If added to N. Forms ajective with negative connotation (boyish,girlish). If added to a compound word the negative evaluation becomes more intensive (honey-moonish). If added to numerals it demonstrates the uncertainty (fourty- fourtish).Negative evaluation – suffixes: ard(coward), ster(ganster),aster(poetaster),eer(black-marketeer),monger,do(kiddo).Diminitive suffexes: kin(lambkin), dy (daddy), ie(sweetie), ette(kitchenette),roo (bodyroo).

The main principle the opposition btw. the norm and deviation from the norm, btw traditional and situational meaning.The central notion of Stylistic Morphology is TRANSPOSITION – a divergence between traditional usage of a neutral word and its situational(stylistic) usage. Deviation=transposition – destruction of customary valences and creation of expressiveness.

Types of grammatical transposition

Generally speaking we may distinguish 3 types of grammatical transposition.

1. The first deals with the transposition of a certain grammar form into a new syntactical distribution with the resulting effect of contrast. The so-called 'historical present' is a good illustration of this type: a verb in the Present Indefinite form is used against the background of the Past Indefinite narration. The effect of vividness, an illusion of «presence», a lapse in time into the reality of the reader is achieved.

Everything went as easy as drinking, Jimmy said. There was a garage just round the corner behind Belgrave Square where he used to go every morning to watch them messing about with the cars. Crazy about cars the kid was. Jimmy comes in one day with his motorbike and side-car and asks for some petrol. He comes up and looks at it in the way he had. (Waugh)

2. The second type of transposition involves both—the lexical and grammatical meanings. The use of the plural form with a noun whose lexical denotative meaning is incompatible with plurality(abstract nouns, proper names) may serve as an apt example

The look on her face... was full of secret resentments, and longings, and fears. (Mitchell)

3. Transposition of classifying grammatical meanings, that brings together situationally incompatible forms—for instance, the use of a common noun as a proper one.

The effect is personification of inanimate objects or antonomasia (a person becomes a symbol of a quality or trait—/V/r. Know-Ail, Mr. Truth, speaking names).

Lord and Lady Circumference, Mr. Parakeet, Prof. Silenus, Colonel MacAdder. (Waugh)

10.The noun and its stylistic potential: The Categories of Case and Number.

The stylistic power of a noun is closely linked to the grammatical categories this part of speech possesses. First of all these are the categories of number, person and case.

· singular noun instead of an appropriate plural form creates a generalized, elevated effect often bordering on symbolization. Ex. That is what the student is supposed to know.

· the use of plural instead of singular - as a rule makes the description more powerful and large-scale. Ex. The clamour of waters, snows, winds, rains... (Hemingway)

· The plural form of an abstract noun brings about aesthetic semantic growth. Ex. In our world the injustices and the cruelties flourish.

· Proper names employed as plural lend the narration a unique generalizing effect: If you forget to invite somebody's Aunt Millie, I want to be able to say I had nothing to do with it. There were numerous Aunt Millies because of, and in spite of Arthur's and Edith's triple checking of the list. (O'Hara)

These examples represent the second type of grammatical metaphor formed by the transposition of the lexical and grammatical meanings.

The third type of transposition can be seen on the example of personification. Personification transposes a common noun into the class of proper names by attributing to it thoughts or qualities of a human being. Ex. The wind whispered through dry grass.

· The category of case (possessive case) which is typical of the proper nouns for non-human being: Love's

· Grammatical forms can be polysemantic, for example, the genitive case can express such relations as possessivity, origin, measure, subject or object of an action, etc. In some cases at least two meanings may be realized simultaneously. The title of a story “The murder of my aunt” may be interpreted in two ways: that somebody murdered my aunt, or that my aunt murdered somebody, which results in a stylistic effect.

· Abstract nouns transposed into the class of personal nouns are charged with various emotional connotations(The emotive connotations in such cases may range from affection to irony or distaste.). Ex. The old oddity (an odd old person). (Arnold)

11.The article and its stylistic potential.

The stylistic effect is usually observed when articles are used with the nouns normally used without them. It primarily concerns the group of proper names that normally are not preceded by any article. But there are some cases which allow the use of articles before proper names, exactly, surnames.

The use of the indefinite article can express different meanings:

-belonging to a famous family, e.g., Elisabeth was a Tudor. He is a real human being – not a Pendleton at all. (J.Webster). The connotations here may range from neutral reference to a person as a member of a family to assigning either positive or negative features characteristic of all members of this family;

- It may be charged with a negative evaluative connotation and diminish the importance of someone's personality, make it sound insignificant. Ex. A Forsyte is not an uncommon animal.

The definite article before the proper noun:

- may emphasize the person’s good or bad qualities: Ex. You are not the Andrew Manson I married

- may serve as an intensifier of the epithet used in the character's description: I was pointed out for the rest of my visit as the mad Englishman.

- may contribute to the devices of gradation or help create the rhythm of the narration: Ex. But then he would lose his connections here, and his uncle – this world! The loss! The loss! The loss!

No article, or the omission of article before a common noun conveys a maximum level of abstraction, generalization. Ex. They went as though car and driver were one indivisible whole.

12.The verb and its stylistic properties: The Categories of Tense, Mood, Person.

All deviant usages of its tense, voice and aspect forms have strong stylistic connotations and play an important role in creating a metaphorical meaning.

The verbal category of tense

· 'historical present' that makes the description very pictorial, almost visible. to make the reader the on-looker of the situation in order he/she to feel the empathy. Ex. The letter was received by a person of the royal family, who put it open on the table. The Minister D came in... He sees the letter and guesses the secret.

· The Imperative form and the Present Indefinite referred to the future render determination: Ex. Edward, let there be an end of this. I go home.

· The use of shall with the 2nd or 3rd person and the emphatic use of will with the 1st person will denote the speaker's emotions, intention or determination: If there's a disputed decision, they shall race again. Wait for me! I’ll go too.

· Continuous forms are frequently used to convey the emotional state of the speaker, his mood, his intentions or feelings. The may express: conviction, determination (She's never coming here again, I tell you that straight); impatience, irritation (I didn't mean to hurt you. You did. You're doing nothing else); surprise, indignation, disapproval (She is always smoking during our meeting!)

· Present Continuous may be used instead of the Present Indefinite form to characterize the current emotional state or behaviour: How is Carol? She is being so brave.

· Verbs of physical and mental perception in continuous forms- a highly emphatic structure: Ex. I must say you're disappointing me, my dear fellow.

· The passive voice of the verb -generalisation and depersonalisation because an utterance is devoid of the doer of an action and the action itself loses direction. Ex. He is a long-time citizen and to be trusted.

· The use of the auxiliary do in affirmative sentences is a notable emphatic device:

The category of mood

The imperative mood expresses the meaning of command, order, request, warning, advice, wish, threat. Besides the main verb forms used to embody this meaning different lexico-grammatical means are employed to make the utterance more emphatic or less categorical or even to modify completely its pragmatic meaning:For heaven’s sake keep the front door shut!.. (K. Mansfield).

The correlation between synthetic and analytical forms of English subjunctive mood is very important for stylistics. The synthetic form of subjunctive mood which has long been regarded as obsolescent is being revived in emotive prose and poetry now and is frequently used alongside its analytical counterpart should and would which modify the expressive connotations of the utterance, its emotive, subjective, evaluative characteristics:

There it was at its best, the Italian beauty, which makes men of all nations homesick for it, whether Italy be their home or not (B. Show)

• In this respect the category of mood resembles the category of voice: it shows the speaker’s subjective interpretation of the event as either actual or imaginary.

The category of person shows whether the action is performed by the speaker or someone or something other than the speaker or person addressed. The sentences containing the infinitive have no explicit doer of the action, that’s why they acquire a generalized universal character. The world of the personage and the reader blend into one whole as if the question is asked of the reader (what to do, how to act). This creates empathy. Ex. He was not the kind of person to ask such questions.

13. The adjective and its stylistic functions

The stylistic function of the adjective is achieved through the deviant use of the degrees of comparison that results mostly in grammatical metaphors of the second type (lexical and grammatical incongruity). The same effect is also caused by the substantivized use of the adjectives.

· adjectives that are not normally used in a comparative degree are used with this category they are charged with a strong expressive power. Ex. He was deader than a doornail (idiom).

· The same effect when a synthetic way of forming degrees of comparison is used with polysyllabic words, Ex. Curiouser and curiouser! cried Alice.

· The use of comparative or superlative forms with other parts of speech may also convey a humorous colouring: He was the most married man I've ever met.

· The transposition of other parts of speech into the adjective creates stylistically marked pieces of description as in the following sentence: A camouflage of general suffuse and dirty-jeaned drabness covers everybody and we merge into the background.

· an adjective gets substantivized and acquires the qualities of a noun such as "solid, firm, tangible, hard," etc. All Europe was in arms, and England would join. The impossible had happened.

· Violation of the rules of word-building and form-building rules results in a greater influence on a reader or listener, e.g., I want a Christmassy Christmas.

14. Graphons. Emphatic Intonation.

It is intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act. Graphon indicates irregularities or carelessness of pronunciation, supplies information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition. It also individualizes the character’s speech, adds plausibility, vividness, memorability. Graphon is referred to all changes of the type (italics, CapiTaliSation), spacing of graphemes (hy-phe-na-ti-on, m-m-multiplication) and of lines (V.A.K.) E.g. “Alllll aboarrrrrrrd”.

Ex.: “The b-b-b-ast-ud seen me c-c-coming” (stumbling). “You don’t mean to thay that thith ith your firth time” (lisping). “Ah like ma droap o’Scatch, d’ye ken” (Scotch accent). – I like my drop of Scotch. E.g. I had a coach with a little seat in fwont with an iwon wail for the dwiver.

Emphatic Intonation – a type of intonation which is emotional and powerful. It serves to intensify the meaning of the whole sentence or one or more words in the sentence. The English language distinguishes intensity emphasis and contrast emphasis. Intensity emphasis is emphasizing of the whole sentence or one or more words in it in order to intensify the meaning. The meaning of the whole sentence is intensified by increasing the stress. Contrast emphasis is emphasizing of one or more words in the sentence in order to express contrast. Components of E.I.: melody, tones, special scale, pitch level, sentence stress timbre, word stress.

Melody in emphatic speech is characterized by compound tones, special scales, different pitch-levels and pitch-ranges. The tones used in emphatic speech are: High-Fall, Fall-Rise, Rise-Fall, Fall+Rise, Rise-Fall-Rise. Special scales are ascending (gradually ascending, sliding, scandent), descending (stepping, stepping-broken, sliding, scandent) and level (low and high) ones. Pitch-levels of sense groups in emphatic speech may be made deliberately higher or lower and such ranges are wider and narrower than in unemphatic speech. Rising of the pitch-level and widening of the range are used to express: joy, joyful surprise, anger, irritation. Ex. Good heavens! Lowering of the pitch-level and narrowing of the range serves to express hopelessness, sadness, disappointment, horror, negative emotions. Ex. It snows and snows. Sentence stress in emphatic speech is made stronger than in unemphatic speech. Ex. His acting was marvellous! Word stress too is sometimes changed in emphatic speech: an unstressed syllable may be stressed deliberately to make the word more prominent. Ex. I reee-\peat it! I reee-\peat it! Timbre in emphatic speech expresses emotions such as joy, anger, surprise, irony etc. Tempo of speech in emphatic speech may be deliberately made quicker or slower than in unemphatic speech.

15. Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or tools, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. Combinations of speech sounds of this type will be associated with whatever produces the natural sound. Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia:direct and indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, bang, cuckoo. These words have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to guess what it is. Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding - dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested. Examples are: a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go at something.

Indirectonomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo-writing". An example is: 'And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain' (E. A. Poe),where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.

Onomatopoeia is often used in literature to create aural effects that mimic the visual thing being described. (Function)

16. Alliteration, assonance, aesthetic evaluation of sounds

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy).Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. But even so we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning. However, certain sounds, if repeated, may produce an effect that can be specified. For example, the sound [m] is frequently used to give a somnolent (усыпляющий) effectIn Old English poetry alliteration was one of the basic principles of verse It is frequently used as a well-tested means not only in verse but in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings, as, for example, in the following: Tit for tat; blind as a bat;or in the titles of books: "Sense and Sensibility" (Jane Austin);Many common tongue twisters contain examples of alliteration. For instance: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Function - to create melodic effect in poetry and prose.

Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound or diphthong in non-rhyming words. To qualify as assonance, the words must be close enough for the repetition of the sound to be noticeable. Assonance is a common literary technique used in poetry and prose, several proverbs. The assonance helps to make them more memorable in a subtler way than through rhyming words: Honesty is the best policy. Let the cat out of the bag. Function- to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme, which consequently enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition, it helps writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.

Aesthetic evaluation of sounds. A phoneme can have a strong associative power. The sounds themselves, though they have no extra lingual meaning, possess a kind of expressive meaning and hence stylistic value. The essence of stylistic value of the sound consists in its paradigmatic correlation with phonetically analogous units which have positive or negative meaning. B, p, k, g, d, t – abrupt. Sh – unpleasant. M, n, l – melodic. Ash – deforming. iː - tender. Bl – disgust.

17. Rhyme and Rhythm.

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. Identity and particularly similarity of sound combinations may be relative. For instance, we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, as in might, right; needless, heedless. When there is identity of the stressed syllable, including the initial consonant of the second syllable (in polysyllabic words), we have exact or identical rhymes. Incomplete rhymes present a greater variety. They can be divided into two main groups: vowel 'rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different, as in flesh— fresh—press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth—forth; tale—tool— Treble—trouble; flung—long.

According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza (строфа), certain models have crystallized, for instance:1. couplets —when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. This is commonly marked aa. 2. triple rhymes—aaa 3. cross rhymes—abab 4. framing or ring rhymes—abba. There is still another variety of rhyme which is called internal rhyme. The rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line, as in: "I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers." (Shelley).

Rhyme may be said to possess two seemingly contradictory functions: dissevering (разделяющая), on the one hand, and consolidating (объядиняющая), on the other. As in many stylistic devices, these two functions of rhyme are realized simultaneously in a greater or lesser degree depending on the distribution of the rhymes. In aa rhymes the consolidating function is rather conspicuous. In aabaab rhymes the rhyming words bb may not immediately reveal their consolidating function. The distinctive function of rhyme is particularly felt when it occurs unexpectedly in ordinary speech or in prose. The listener's attention is caught by the rhyme and he may lose the thread of the discourse.

Rhythm. In verse rhythm is regular succession of weak and strong stress. Rhythm, therefore, is the main factor which brings order into the utterance. A rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech. The most observable rhythmical patterns in prose are based on the use of certain stylistic syntactical devices, namely, enumeration, repetition, parallel construction (in particular, balance) and chiasmus.Function - rhythm captivates the audience and readers alike by giving musical effect to a speech or a literary piece. Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It also specifies emotions.

18. Meter and line. The stanza.

Metre is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists.. (V.M. Zirmunsky).

There is no established principle of English versification. English verse (=line) is mostly based on rhythmical arrangement and rhyme. Both rhythm and rhyme are objective qualities of language and exist outside verse. But in verse both have assumed their compositional patterns. The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm making up classical verse are based, on:1) alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, 2) equilinearity, that is, an equal number of syllables in the lines,3) a natural pause at the end of the line, the line being a more or less complete semantic unit,4) identity of stanza pattern,5) established patterns of rhyming .English verse, like all verse, originated from song. Classic English verse is called sуllabo-tonic. Two parameters are taken into account in defining the measure: the number of syllables (syllabo) and the distribution of stresses (tonic).

There are five of the most recognizable English metrical patterns.:

1. Iambic(айэмбик) metre, in which the unstressed syllable is followed y a stressed one. It is graphically represented thus:

2. Trochaic(троукеик)metre, where the order is reversed, i.e. a stressed syllable is followed by one unstressed

3. Dactylic metre—one stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed

4. Amphibrachiс(эмфибрекик) metre—one stressed syllable is framed by two unstressed

5. Anapaestic(энепестик) metre—two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed

These arrangements of qualitatively different syllables are the units of the metre, the repetition of which makes verse. One unit is called a foot. The number of feet in a line varies, but it has its limit; it rarely exceeds eight. If the line consists of only one foot it is called a monometer; a line consisting of two feet is a dimeter, three—trimeter; four—tetrameter; five—pentameter; six—hexameter; seven—septameter; eight—оctameter

If we. make a careful study of almost any poem, we will find what are called irregularities or modifications of its normal metrical pattern.These modifications generally have some special significance,usually connected with the sense, though in some cases they may be due to the nature of the language material itself. This is particularly the case with the first modification when the stress is lifted from a syllable on which the language will not allow stress, and we have what is called a pуrrhiс foot (пирик)(1) instead of an iambic or a trochaic foot, for example:

So, that nowtostillthebeatingofmy heart Istoodrepeating (Poe)

The second modification (2) of the rhythm is the inverted order of stressed and unstressed syllables in one of the feet of the iambic or trochaic pattern.

His naked skin clothed in the torrid mist

The third modification is the insertion of a foot of two stressed syllables, called a spondee. (3) It is used instead of an iambus or a trochee. In Shakespeare's iambic pentameter these two modifications are frequently to be found, for example:

The morn in russet mantle clad

The fourth modification has to do with the number of syllables in the line. There may be either a syllable missing or there may be an extra syllable. (4) Thus, the last syllable of a trochaic octameter is often missing, as in this line from Poe's "The Raven":

A line with an extra syllable is called hypermetric.(хайпэмитрик). With missing sillable is called ahypometric(хипомитрик) line

The fifth departure from the norms of classic verse is enjаmbment, or the run-оп line (5). This term is used to denote the transfer of a part of a syntagm from one line to the following one, as in the following lines from Byron's "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage":

1. Fair is proud Seville; let her country boast

2. Her strength, her wealth, her site of ancient days;

This is still more acutely felt in the case of stanzaenjambtnent. Here the sense of a larger rhythmic unit, the stanza, which is generally self-contained and complete, is made to flow over to the next stanza.

The stanza is the largest unit in verse. It is composed of a number of lines having a definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout the poem.

The stanza is generally built up on definite principles with regard to the number of lines, the character of the metre and the rhyming pattern.1) The heroic couplet—a stanza that consists of two iambic pentameters with the rhyming pattern aa. 2) The next model of stanza which once enjoyed popularity was the Spencerian stanza, named after Edmund Spencer, the 16th century poet who first used this type of stanza in his "Faerie Queene." It consists of nine lines, the first eight of which are iambic pentameters and the ninth is one foot longer, that is, an iambic hexameter. The rhyming scheme is ababbcbcc. 3) The stanza named оttava rima has also been popular in English poetry. It is composed of eight iambic pentameters, the rhyming scheme being abababcc. This type of stanza was borrowed from Italian poetry and was widely used by Philip Sidney and other poets of the 16th century.4) A looser form of stanza is the ballad stanza. This is generally an alternation of iambic tetrameters with iambic dimeters (or trimeters), and the rhyming scheme is abcb; that is, the tetrameters are not rhymed— the trimeters are. The ballad, which is a very old, perhaps the oldest form of English verse, is a short story in rhyme, sometimes with dialogue and direct speech. 5) One of the most popular stanzas, which bears the name of stanza only conventionally, is the sonnet. This is not a part of a larger unit, it is a complete independent work of a definite literary genre. However, by tradition and also due to its strict structural design this literary genre is called a stanza.

The English sonnet is composed of fourteen iambic pentameters with the following rhyming scheme: ababcdcdefefgg, that is, three quatrains with cross rhymes and a couplet at the end. The English sonnet was borrowed from Italian poetry, but on English soil it underwent structural and sometimes certain semantic changes.

19. Free verse and Accented verse.

Verse remains classical if it retains its metrical scheme. There are, however, types of verse which are not classical. The one most popular is what is called "vers libre" which is the French term for free verse.. Free verse is recognized by lack of strictness in its rhythmical design.

Here we shall use the term 'free verse' to refer only to those varieties of verse which are characterized by: 1) a combination of various metrical feet in the line; 2) absence of equilinearity and 3) stanzas of varying length. Rhyme, however, is generally retained.

Accented verse is a type of verse in which only the number of stresses in the line is taken into consideration.. Accented verse is not syllabo-tonic but only tonic. In its extreme form the lines have no pattern of regular metrical feet nor fixed length, there is no notion of stanza, and there are no rhymes. Therefore the extreme type of accented verse just given ceases to be verse as such. If has become what is sometimes called poetic prose. Accented verse is nothing but an orderly singling-out of certain words and syntagms in the utterance by means of intonation..

Accented verse (tonic verse) has a long folklore tradition. Old English verse was tonic but not syllabo-tonic. The latter appeared in English poetry as a borrowing from Greek and Latin poetry, accented verse may therefore conventionally be regarded as a stage in the transformational process of adapting the syllabo-tonic system to the organic norms of modern colloquial English.

20. Metaphor.

The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to another. A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties .Sometimes the process of identification can hardly be decoded. Here is a metaphor embodied in an adverb:"The leaves fell sorrowfully."

Metaphors, like all stylistic devices, can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors.(“She didn’t listen. She was free in her prison of passion.” (O. Wilde“The Picture of Dorian Gray”)Those which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors.(floods of tears, a shadow of a smile) Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i. e. speech metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.

An extended metaphor, sometimes known as a prolonged or sustained metaphor, is a metaphor that an author develops over the course of many lines or even an entire work of literature.. Extended metaphors are complicated than a metaphor that an author only uses once in that extended metaphors more deeply explore the similarities between the original thing and the thing to which it is being compared. For example, Shakespeare's famous "All the world's a stage, And the men and women merely players" is an extended metaphor, in which the "world" and the "stage" act as the primary objects, while "we" and "players" represent the secondary objects.

The metaphor is often defined as a compressed simile. But the metaphor aims at identifying the objects, while the simile aims at finding some point of resemblance by keeping the objects apart. That is why these two stylistic devices are viewed as belonging to two different groups of SDs. They are different in their linguistic nature.My father grumbles like a bear in the mornings (simile).My father is a bear in the mornings (metaphor).

Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose .Trite metaphors are generally used as еxрressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language. The use of trite metaphors should not be regarded as a drawback of style. FUNCTION. Trite metaphor - They help the writer to enliven his work and even make the meaning more concrete. All metaphors -it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.

21. Metonomy

Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.Thus, the word crown may stand for 'king or queen', cup or glass for 'the drink it contains.Here also the interrelation between the dictionary and contextual meanings should stand out clearly and conspicuously. Only then can we state that a stylistic device is used. Metonymy used in language-in-action, i e. contextual metonуmy, is genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression, produced by a chance feature of the thing, for example:

"Miss Tox's hand trembled as she slipped it through Mr. Dombey's arm, and" felt herself escorted up the steps, preceded by a cocked hat and a Babylonian collar" (Dickens)The function of these examples of genuine metonymy is more likely to point out the insignificance of the wearer rather than his importance, for his personality is reduced to his externally conspicuous features, the hat and red collar.

Metonymy and metaphor differ in the way they are deciphered (расшифровываются). In the process of disclosing the meaning implied in a metaphor, one image excludes the other, that is, the metaphor 'lamp' in the 'The sky lamp of the night', when deciphered, means the moon, and though there is a definite interplay of meanings, we perceive only one object, the moon. This is not the case with metonymy. Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind, does not exclude the other.

Many attempts have been made to pin-point the types of relation which metonymy is based on. Among them the following are most common:

1. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. In this case the thing becomes a symbol of the notion, as in

"The camp, the pulpit and the law

For rich men's sons are free." (Shelley)

2. The container instead of the thing contained:

The hall applauded.

3. The relation of proximity, as in:

"The round game table was boisterous and happy." (Dickens)

4. The material instead of the thing made of it, as in:

"The marble spoke."

5. The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself, as in:

"As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be the last." (Byron)

It must also be noted that metonymy, being a means of building up imagery, generally concerns concrete objects, which are generalized. The process of generalization is easily carried out with the help of the definite article.

Function of Metonymy. Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. By using metonymy, texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawing readers’ attention. In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness.metonymy, like other literary devices, is employed to add a poetic color to words to make them come to life.

22. Irony.

Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied, e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).

The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with a special melody design, unless the context itself renders this intonation pattern unnecessary.

Types: verbal irony is a SD which occurs when a speaker says something contradictory to what he intends to, so it is an intentional product of the speaker (Ex.: I can’t wait to read the seven hundred page report.). Situational irony is a SD that occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead (An example would be when someone buys a gun to protect himself, but the same gun is used by another individual to injure him. One would expect that the gun would keep him safe, but it has actually caused him injury). Dramatic irony is a kind of irony in a situation, which the writers frequently employ in their works. In dramatic irony, the audience is more aware of what is happening than a character. It creates intense suspense and humor and also emphasizes and conveys emotions and moods more effectively. (For example, in “Romeo and Juliet”, we know much before the characters that they are going to die).

Function: irony is used to express critical evaluation of the things spoken about. It also brings about some added meanings to a situation. Ironical statements and situations in literature develop readers’ interest. Irony makes a work of literature more intriguing and forces the readers to use their imagination and comprehend the underlying meanings of the texts.

23. Zeugma and Pun.

Zeugma and pun are stylistic devices based on polysemantic effect, on interaction of primary and derivative logical meaning. The only reliable distinguishing feature between pun and zeugma is a structural one: zeugma is a structure with a verb, in which one element is central. Pun is more independent, but it must be penned by a context.

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred (Ex. The boys took their places and their books). The resulting effect is strongly humorous/ironical.

Function: Zeugma is particularly favoured in English emotive prose and in poetry. Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when two meanings clash. By making the two meanings conspicuous in this particular way, each of them stands out clearly. The basic function of zeugma is surprise (Ex. The farmers in the valley grew potatoes, peanuts, and bored).

The pun – is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words having different meanings. Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities words entail. The ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms. For instance, in a sentence “A happy life depends on a liver”, liver can refer to the organ liver or simply the person who lives. Puns are often used in riddles and joke (Ex. An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight).

Function: Apart from being witty and humorous, puns add profound meanings to texts and shape the way in which the text is interpreted by the readers. By playing with the words, the writers reveal their cleverness and the cleverness of their characters. Besides, puns in a literary works act as a source of comic relief or an intentional effort on the part of the writer to show his/her creative ability in using language.

24. Interjections and exclamatory words.

Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. Interjections are words with emotive meanings. Interjections have no sentence meaning if taken independently. They radiate the emotional element over the whole of the utterance, provided, of course, that they precede it.

Types:According to their derivational pattern:Primary interjectionsare generally devoid of any logical meaning (Ex. Ah! Bah! Pooh! Hush! though some of them once had logical meaning). Derivative interjections may retain a modicum of logical meaning, though this is always suppressed by the volume of emotive meaning. Ex. 'Heavens!', 'dear me!', 'God!', 'Come on!', 'God knows!', 'Bless me!', 'Humbug!' and many others of this kind are not interjections as such; a better name for them would be exclamatory words and word-combinations generally used as interjections,' i.e. their function is that of the interjection. Semantically, interjections are as a rule divided into two groups: those expressing emotions (emotional interjections) and those expressing inducement (imperative interjections). Research proves that the first group is formed by an overwhelming number of items, whereas the second is less numerous (come on!, here, hey, hush, lo, etc.). Structurally, English interjections may be divided into two types: simple and composite. Simple interjections have the structure of a separate word. Composite interjections are forms combining several words.

It must be noted here that some adjectives, nouns and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections—for example, such words as terrible!, awful!, great!', wonderful!, splendid!', fine!, man!, boy! With proper intonation and with an adequate pause such as follows an interjection, these words may acquire a strong emotional colouring and are equal in force to interjections.

Interjections, like other words in the English vocabulary, bear features which mark them as bookish, neutral or colloquial. Thus oft, aft, Baft and the like are neutral; a/as, egad (euphemism for by God), Lo, hark are bookish; gosh, why, well are colloquial. But as with other words of any stratum of vocabulary, the border-line between the three groups is broad and flexible.

Function: to attach a definite modal nuance to the utterance. The context usually suggests the shade of meaning contained in a given interjection (joy, delight, admiration, sadness, blame, fright regret, approval, disbelief, disgust, horror, fright, irony, sarcasm).

25. Epithets.

The epithet is a SD based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties.

Types: Language epithets – trite, traditional epithets, belonging to language-as-a-system (Ex. classic example). Speech epithets – genuine epithets (Ex. sleepless bay)

From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into:

1) simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): ex. He looked at them in animal panic.

2) compound: ex. apple - faced man;

3) sentenceand phrase epithets: ex. It is his do - it - yourself attitude.

4) reversed epithets - composed of 2 nouns linked by an of-phrase: ex. "a shadow of a smile", “a devil of a job”; Simple and compound ep. can be used in pre/postposition, phrase ep are used only before the nouns they refer to.

From the point of view of the distribution of epithets in the sentence:

1) String of epithets (gives a many-sided depiction of the object): ex. A plump, rosy-cheecked, wholesome apple-faced young woman.

2) Transferred epithet (ordinary logical attributes generally describing the state of a human being, but made to refer to an inanimate object): ex. merry hours, sick chamber.

Semantically according to I. Galperin.1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: dark forest; careful attention.

2) unassociated with the noun – epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.

Function: to show the evaluating, subjective attitude of writer towards the thing described. It is a direct, straightforward way of showing the author’s attitude. With the use of epithets, writers are able to describe the characters and settings more vividly in order to give richer meanings to the text.

26. Oxymoron.

Oxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meaning of the two clash, being opposite in sense (ex. speaking silence, cold fire, living death). The essence of oxymoron consists in the capacity of the primary meaning of the adjective or adverb to resist for some time the overwhelming power of semantic change which words undergo in combination. In oxymoron the logical meaning holds fast because there is no true word combination, only the juxtaposition of two non-combinative words.

Oxymoron has one main structural model: adjeсtive + noun. It is in this structural model that the resistance of the two component parts to fusion into one unit manifests itself most strongly. In the adverb + adjective (ex. pleasantly ugly face) model the change of meaning in the first element, the adverb, is more rapid, resistance to the unifying process not being so strong.

Types: genuine (ex. proud humility, open secret). Trite (ex. awfully nice, horribly beautiful).

Function: to create new shades of meaning in existing words; to show the controversial nature of the phenomena described.

27. Antonomasia.

Antonomasiais a lexical SD in which a descriptive phrase replaces a person’s name, i.e. in which the nominal meaning of a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning acquires the new-nominal — component. Antonomasia is a stylistic device in which the proper name of a person, who is famous for some of his features, is put for a person having the same feature. It is based on interaction between logical and nominal meaning of a word. Antonomasia is brief and picturesque.

Types:

1) a proper noun is used for a common noun (it is a metonymic antonomasia). It is observed in cases when a personal name stands for something connected with the bearer of that name who once really existed. It describes a person’s features and qualities through those commonly associated with the name of some historical figure or some mythological, religious, literary character. Its stylistic function is to give concrete expression to abstract things (Ex. Her husband is an Othello. Some modern Samsons were walking by.).

2) a common noun is used instead of a proper noun (it is a metaphoric antonomasia). Often it is used to create a humorous effect (Ex. Miss Dirty Fringe, Mr. Know-All, Mr. Fix-it). They are usually spelled with hyphens between their components to stress their close syntactical and semantic relations.

3) 'speaking names' — names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. The stylistic function is to characterize a person through his name: Mr. Scrooge, Oliver Twist, Becky Sharp. They are more frequently used in Russian literature and seldom in English.

Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in "Dr. Fresh Air") or phrases (as in "Mr. What's-his name"). Common nouns used in the second type of antonomasia are in most cases abstract, though there are instances of concrete ones being used too.

28. Simile.

Simile – is a SD that draws a comparison between two different objects belonging to dissimilar classes yet having something in common. The smile is made explicit by using some special markers (like, as, as if, seem, such as) and verbs (resemble, look like), which makes simile different from metaphor, where affinity is implicit. Simile shouldn’t be confused with simple comparison, because comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference. To use a simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things.Simile also excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them, while comparison takes into consideration al properties of 2 objects.

Examples: Ordinary comparison – The boy seems to be as clever as his mother (boy and mother belong to the same class of objects – human beings)

Simile – Our soldiers are as brave as lions. Her cheeks are red like a rose.

In the English language there is a long list of hackneyed similes pointing out the analogy between the various qualities, states or actions of a human being and the animals supposed to be the bearers of the given quality: She is busy as a bee/sly as a fox/ blind as a bat.

Function: Similes are an important tool that makes language more creative, descriptive, and entertaining. Simile allows readers to relate the feelings of a writer or a poet to their personal experiences. Therefore, the use of similes makes it easier for the readers to understand the subject matter of a literary text, which may have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended. Like metaphors, similes also offer variety in our ways of thinking and offers new perspectives of viewing the world.

29. Periphrasis.

Periphrasis – a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. It is also called circumlocution due to the round-about or indirect way used to name a familiar object or phenomenon. The essence of the device is that it is decipherable only in context. If a periphrastic locution is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic device but merely a synonymous expression. Such easily decipherable periphrases are also called traditional, dictionary or language periphrases. The others are speech periphrases. Ex. my better half (my wife) – dictionary periphrasis.

Periphrasis as a SD is a new, genuine nomination of an object, a process which realizes the power of language to coin new names for objects by disclosing some quality of the object, even though it may be transitory, and making it alone represent the object. Ex.: I understand you are poor, and wish to earn money by nursing the little boy, my son, who has been so prematurely deprived of what can never be replaced." (Dickens)

Stylistic periphrasis can be divided into:1. Logical - based on one of the inherent properties of a thing (Ex. Instrument of destruction – pistol, the object of administration). 2. Figurative - based either on metaphor or metonymy (Ex. To tie a knot - to marry; the punctual service of all work – the sun).

Function: It aims at pointing to one of the seemingly insignificant or barely noticeable features or properties of the given object, and intensifies this property by naming the object by the property. Periphrasis makes the reader perceive the new appellation against the background of the one existing in the language code and the twofold simultaneous perception secures the stylistic effect. At the same time periphrasis, like simile, has a certain cognitive function inasmuch as it deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described. It also can produce humorous effect.

30 Euphemism

Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. the word 'to die' has bred the following euphemisms: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone, and the more facetious ones: to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost, to go west. So euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing a deliberately mild effect. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing device"

Function of Euphemism

Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published due to strict social censorship e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues.

Types

Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical and 4) parliamentary.

Conventional euphemisms--employed in conformity to social usages are best illustrated by the parliamentary codes of expression.

political euphemisms, the aim of which is to mislead public opinion and to express what is unpleasant in a more delicate manner. Sometimes disagreeable facts are even distorted with the help of a euphemistic expression. Thus the headline in one of the British newspapers "Tension in Kashmir" was to hide the fact that there was a real uprising in that area; "Undernourishment of children in India" stood for 'starvation'.

Periphrastic and euphemistic expressions were characteristic of certain literary trends and even produced a term periphrastic style. But it soon gave way to a more straightforward way of describing things.

Examples in Everyday Life

You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).

Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).

He is always tired and emotional (drunk).

We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.

He is a special child (disabled or retarded)

Euphemisms, words or phrases that substitute for provocative or emotionally charged terms, are employed for various reasons:

1 Abstraction: Some euphemisms serve to distance people from unpleasant or embarrassing truths, as when we say that a dead person passed away or a celebrity who has canceled an appearance is suffering from exhaustion.

2 Indirection: A euphemism may replace an explicit description of an action, as when people speak of going to the bathroom or of others sleeping together.

3 Litotes: Sometimes, euphemism occurs in the form of this rhetorical device in which the gravity or force of an idea is softened or minimized by a double negative, as in the reference to someone as being not unattractive.

4 Mispronunciation: Alteration of pronunciation is a form of euphemism, as when we say frigging or shoot, or jeez or cripes, so as not to offend people by using profanity (figurative or literal). These types of euphemisms, involving rhyme, alliteration, or shortening, are also called minced oaths.

5 Modification: A bluntly offensive noun can be transformed into a euphemism by converting it to an adjective, as in saying someone has socialist leanings rather than labeling them a socialist outright.

6 Personification: One form of euphemism is when things that some people prefer not to mention candidly, such as genitals, are assigned personal names. (I will go beyond euphemism and let readers think of examples on their own.)

7 Slang: Much of slang, derived to produce a vocabulary exclusive to a social group, is euphemism, as in the use of joint for marijuana (itself a slang term, derived from the Spanish names Mary and Juana — closely related to “Mary Jane,” yet another euphemism).

31 Hyperbole

Is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exaggeration is carried to an illogical degree, sometimes ad absurdum.

"He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face." (O. Henry)In order to depict the width of the river Dnieper Gogol uses the following hyperbole: "It's a rare bird that can fly to the middle of the Dnieper."

Like many stylistic.devices, hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through frequent repetition and become a unit of the lan-guage-as-a-system, reproduced -in speech in its unaltered form. Here are some examples of language hyperbole: *A thousand pardons'; 'scared to death\ 'immensely obliged;' 'I'd give the world to see him.'

Functions

· In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an amusing effect. However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch the reader’s attention.

· also has the function of intensifying one certain property of the object described.

· Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance. This is achieved, as is the case with other devices, by awakening the dichotomy of thought and feeling where thought takes the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling.

Common Examples of Hyperbole

My grandmother is as old as the hills.

Your suitcase weighs a ton!

She is as heavy as an elephant!

I am dying of shame.

I am trying to solve a million issues these days.

From Joseph Conrad’s novel “The Heart of Darkness”,

“I had to wait in the station for ten days-an eternity.”

The wait of ten days seemed to last forever and never end.

32 Meiosis

Meiosis is a figure of speech that minimizes the importance of something through euphemism. Meiosis is an attempt to downplay the significance or size of an unpleasant thing, though not all meiosis examples refer to something negative.

The term meiosis comes from the Greek word μειόω, which means “to make smaller” or “to diminish.” Originally, the definition of meiosis referred to a biological process in which gametic cells divide. The term was borrowed for literary purposes with a more metaphorical meaning of making something smaller.

Difference Between Meiosis, Litotes, and Understatement

Understatement involves any minimization of something, and can be used for humorous purposes, to comfort people, to be humble, and many other purposes. Both litotes and meiosis are forms of understatement, and thus have more specialized uses and forms.

Litotes: Litotes refers to the practice of negating something in order to prove the opposite. Generally this means a situation in which the thing denied is negative and the affirmed opposite is a positive thing. For example: “It wasn’t bad.”

Meiosis: Meiosis differs from other forms of understatement due its use of euphemism. Euphemism allows people to skirt around unpleasant things while they talk or write, and minimize the discomfort of talking about it. Meiosis employs this, though there are also examples of meiosis in which a word connoting something small is substituted for a large thing (for example, calling the Atlantic Ocean “the pond”).

Common Examples of Meiosis

There are a number of famous meiosis examples, such as the following phrases used for infamous periods in history:

The Troubles (a period of violence in Northern Ireland)

Our Peculiar Institution (slavery in the American south before the Civil War)

The Recent Unpleasantness (after the Civil War, what those in the American south referred to those events as)

We also might use meiosis to describe and belittle professions, such as the following:

Grease-monkey (mechanic)

Ambulance-chaser (personal injury lawyer)

Shrink (psychiatrist)

Functions

· Authors use meiosis for the same reasons that we use it in ordinary conversation. Sometimes we try to avoid talking about taboo and difficult subjects by speaking in euphemism; by diminishing the way we talk about something, the problem might feel smaller as well. Sometimes authors use meiosis to be humble, such as in Edgar Allen Poe’s case below

For the most wild yet most homely narrative which I am about to pen, I neither expect nor solicit belief. Mad indeed would I be to expect it, in a case where my very senses reject their own evidence. Yet, mad am I not—and very surely do I not dream. But to-morrow I die, and to-day I would unburden my soul.The Black Cat” by Edgar Allen Poe) Many authors use humble language in their narration, though this opening to Edgar Allen Poe’s short story “The Black Cat” is a study in contrast. Apparently the narrative is “most wild” and yet “most homely.” Poe has his narrator assert that what is to follow is “a series of mere household events”—an example of meiosis, as, clearly, there will be some terrifying events to come.

· Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism such as quiet and brooding where protagonists are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives, old and modern literature and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in humor, in composed and calm characters, in personalities where it gives rhetorical effects to the speech delivered by them. Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the response of an overemotional occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the significance of someone or something in order to heighten something else simultaneously.

Features of Meiosis

It is intentional understatement.

It is used to belittle a person or an event.

It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration.

It often makes use of litotes as synonym to give ironic effect.

33 Peculiar use of set expressions: the cliché, proverbs and sayings, epigrams, quotations, allusions, decomposition of set expressions.

These two tendencies are treated in different ways in lexicology and stylistics. In lexicology the parts of a stable lexical unit may be separated in order to make a scientific investigation of the character of the combination and to analyse the components. In stylistics we analyse the component parts in order to get at some communicative effect sought by the writer. It is this communicative effect and the means employed to achieve it that Jie within the domain of stylistics.

The integrating tendency also is closely studied in the realm of lexicology, especially when linguistic scholars seek to fix what seems to be a stable word-combination and ascertain the degree of its stability, its variants and so on. The integrating tendency is also within the domain of stylistics, particularly when the word-combination has not yet formed itself as a lexical unit but is in the process of being so formed.

Cliche is an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. It refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. Ex. As red as rose. It’s a matter of time – to happen sooner or later. As old as the hills – a cliché to describe an old person. Clichés are usually used informal ceremonies, festivals, courts , where they are not considered as clichés. They are found in official documents. Function: although it thus fails positively to contribute meaning to social interactions and communication, it does function socially, since it manages to stimulate behavior (cognition, emotion, volition, action), while it avoids reflection on meanings.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language and collected in dictionaries. There have typical features: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and/or alliteration. But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utterance, which is mainly characterized by its brevity (сжатость). The proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of 2 meanings: the face-value (primary) meaning and an extended meaning drawn from the context. Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually I didactic and image bearing (function). Many of them through frequency of repetition have become polished and wrought into verse-like shape, as in the following: Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. The most noticeable thing about the functioning of sayings, proverbs and catch-phrases is that they may be handled not in their fixed form (the traditional model) but with modifications.

An epigram is a SD akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people. Epigrams are witty, pointed statements, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originator (function). They always have a literary-bookish air about them that distinguishes them from proverbs. The necessary requirements of the epigram: it is brief, generalizing, witty and can be expanded in its application. The most characteristic feature of an epigram is that the sentence gets accepted as a word-combination and often becomes part of the language as a whole. Brevity is the essential quality of the epigram: Ex. A God that can be understood is no God.

A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (" "), dashes (—), italics or other graphical means. The stylistic value of a quotation lies mainly in the fact that it comprises two meanings: the primary meaning, the one which it has in its original surroundings, and the applicative meaning, i.e. the one which it acquires in the new context. Quotations, unlike epigrams, need not necessarily be short. A whole paragraph or a long passage may be quoted if it suits the purpose. A quotation in a new environment may assume a new shade of meaning, a shade necessary or sought by the quoter, but not intended by the writer of the original work.

Ex. “Practice what you preach” is my motto. Quotations are used as a SD with the aim of expanding the meaning of the sentence quoted and setting two meanings one against the other, thus modifying the original meaning. In this quality they are used mostly in the belles-lettres style.

An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to on the part of the reader or listener. As a rule no indication of the source is given. An allusion has certain important semantic peculiarities, in that the meaning of the word (the allusion) should be regarded as a form for the new meaning. So here there is also a kind of interplay between two meanings. Ex: “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”. Function: By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them.

Decomposition of Set Phrases. The stylistic device of decomposition of fused set phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings which make up the component parts of the set phrases, the meaning of which is understood only from the combination as a whole. In other words, it makes each word of the combination acquire its literal meaning which, of course, in many cases leads to the realization of an absurdity. Here is an example of this device as employed by Dickens: Mind! I don't mean to say that I know of my own knowledge, what there is particularly dead about a door-nail. The fusion 'as dead as a door-nail', which simply means completely dead, is decomposed by being used in a different structural pattern. This causes the violation of the generally recognized meaning of the combination which has grown into a mere emotional intensifier.

34 Inversion

Inversion is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter.

Fixed word order is characteristic of the English language, the predominant structure being:

S (Subject) – P (Predicate) – O (Object)

As a result, any relocation of sentence parts becomes conspicuous:

E.g. Talent Mr Micawber has; capital Mr Micawber has not (Dickens).

The initial and final positions are the most prominent ones. Words that occupy them become inevitably emphasized.

The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met

in both English prose and English poetry.

1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence (see the example above).

2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies (postposition of the attribute). This model is often used when there is more than one attribute, for example:

“With fingers weary and worn..." (Thomas Hood)

“Once upon a midnight dreary..." (E. A. Poe)

3.a) The predicative is placed before the subject, as in

“A good generous prayer it was.” (Mark Twain) or

b) the predicative stands before the link-verb and both are placedbefore the subject, as in

“Rude am I in my speech...” (Shakespeare)

4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence, as In:

“Eagerly I wished the morrow.” (Poe)

“My dearest daughter, at your feet 1 fall.” (Dryden)

“A tone of most extraordinary comparison Miss Tox said it in.”

(Dickens)

5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject, as in:

“In went Mr. Pickwick.” (Dickens)

“Down dropped the breeze...” (Coleridge)

Function of Inversion

Like all literary devices, the main function of inversion in prose or poetry is to help the writers achieve stylistic effects like laying an emphasis on a particular point or changing the focus of the readers from a particular point. In poetry, inversions are regularly used to create rhythm, meter or rhyming scheme in the lines.

35 Detached Constructions.

Sometimes one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. Such parts of structures are called detached . They seem to dangle in the sentence as isolated parts.

The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. The structural patterns of detached constructions have not yet been classified, but the most noticeable cases are those in which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position, as in the following examples:

1) “Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes.” (Thackeray)

2) “Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and rather unsteady in his gait." (Thackeray)

Functions

· emphasizing the word or phrase:

E.g. I had a feeling… of the most peculiar closeness to him – not love or attraction or sympathy in any way. But linked destiny (Fowles).

· giving additional characteristics or explanatory information:

E.g. June stood in front, fending off his idle curiosity – a little bit of a thing, … ‘all hair and spirit’ (Galsworthy).

examples of detached constructions:

“Daylight was dying, the moon rising, gold behind the poplars.”

(Galsworthy)

“‘I want to go,’ he said, miserable .” (Galsworthy)

“She was lovely; all of her—delightful.” (Dreiser)

In the English language detached constructions are generally used

in the belles-lettres prose style and mainly with words that have some

explanatory function, for example:

“June stood in front, fending off this idle curiosity — a little

bit of a thing, as somebody said, ‘all hair and spirit’..."

(Galsworthy)

A detached construction can be separated by means of

comma E.g. ‘I want to go,’ he said, miserable (Galsworthy).

Dash E.g. She was lovely; all of her – delightful (Dreiser).

full stop E.g. She was crazy about you. In the beginning.

A variant of detached construction parenthesis. “Parenthesis is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes.”

In fact, parenthesis sometimes embodies a considerable volume of predicativeness, thus giving the utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring.

36 Repetition: its types (parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis, framing, syntactic tautology) and stylistic functions.

Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer. There are several types of repetitions commonly used in both prose and poetry.

When used as a stylistic device, repetition acquires quite different functions. It does not aim at making a direct emotional impact. On the contrary, the stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance. For example;

“For that was itl Ignorant of the long and stealthy march of passion, and of the state to which it had reduced Fleur; ignorant of how Soames had watched her, ignorant of Fleur’s reckless desperation...— ignorant of all this, everybody felt aggrieved.”

(Galsworthy)

Types of Repetition

· Anaphora(compositional pattern): Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses. “My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration.”

· Epiphora(compositional pattern): Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause. “I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior positionin such a case as that, I am above the rest of mankind, in such a case as that. I can act with philosophy in such a case as that. (Dickens) Here the repetition has a slightly different function: it becomes a background against which the statements preceding the repeated unit are made to stand out more conspicuously. This may be called t e background function.

· Framing(compositional pattern) the initial parts of a syntactical unit, in most cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it, as in:“Poor doll's dressmakerl How often so dragged down by hands that should have raised her up; how often so misdirected when losing her way on the eternal road and asking guidance. Poor, little doll's dressmaker”, (Dickens)

· Anadiplosis(linking or reduplication) the last word or phrase of one part of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part, thus hooking the two parts together. The writer, instead of moving on, seems to double back on his tracks and pick up his last word.“Freeman and slave... carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes,” (Marx, Engels)

· chain -repetition. use the linking device several times in one utterance. “For glances beget ogles, ogles sighs, sighs wihes, wishes words, and words a letter.” (Byron)

· “root-repetition” In root-repetition it is not the same words that are repeated but the same root. “To live again in the youth of the young” (Galsworthy)

· synonymical repetition. This is the repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance, as in. “...are there not capital punishments sufficient in your statutes? Is there not blood enough upon your penal code}” (Byron) Here the meaning of the words ‘capital punishments' and ‘statutes’ is repeated in the next sentence by the contextual synonyms ‘blood’ and ‘penal code’. There are two terms frequently used to show the negative attitude of the critic to all kinds of synonymicai repetitions.

a) pleonasm “the use of more words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression."(Oxford Dict) “It was a clear starry night, and not a cloud was to be seen”

b) tautology “the repetition of the same statement; the repetition (especially in the immediate context) of the same word or phrase or of the same idea or statement in other words; usually as a fault of style," “He was the only survivor; no one else was saved”

Functions

· The first, the primary one, is to intensify the utterance.

· Repetition may also stress monotony of action, it may suggest fatigue, or despair, or hopelessness, or doom, as in “What has my life been? Fag and grind, fag and grind. Turn the wheel, turn the wheel” (Dickens)

· Like many stylistic devices, repetition is poly functional. One of those already mentioned, the rhythmical function, must not be under-estimated when studying the effects produced by repetition.

Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures dealt with earlier, viz. the SPU and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession, as in: “There were, ..., real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in ” (Dickens)

Types

· Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses, as in: “It is the mob that labour in your fields and serve in your houses—that man your navy and recruit your army,—that have enabled you to defy all the world, and can also defy you when neglect and calamity have driven them to despair.” (Byron)

· Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences, as in: “The seeds ye sow — another reaps, The robes ye weave—another wears, The arms ye forge — another bears.” (P. B. Shelley)

Parallel construction is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices.

Function

a. intensify the utterance (aesthetic aim)

b. adds rhythm and balance to the utterance

c. show the state of mind of the speaker, he’s under the stress of strong emotion

d. aims at logical emphasis, fixes the reader’s attention on the key-word of the utterance.

e. Stress monotony of action, suggest fatigue, despair, doom

f. Emotive function (in belles-lettres style)

g. Carries the idea of semantic equality and significance of the parts (in matter-of-fact styles, in scientific prose) or emphasizes diversity and contrast of ideas.

In some cases parallelism emphasizes the similarity and equates the significance of the parts, as, for example: "Our senses perceive no extremes. Too much sound deafens us; too much light dazzles us; too great distance or proximity hinders our view

Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction)

Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction, the word-order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared with that of the other, as in: “As high as we have mounted in delight In our dejection do we sink as low ” (Wordsworth) “Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down,” (Coleridge)

Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa, for example: “The register of his burial was signed by the clergyman, the clerk, the undertaker and the chief mourner. Scrooge signed it. (Dickens)

There are different variants of the structural design of chiasmus.

· The first example given shows chiasmus appearing in a complex sentence where the second part has an opposite arrangement.

· The second example demonstrates chiasmus in a sentence expressing semantically the relation of cause and effect.

· The third example is composed of two independent sentences and the chiasmus serves to increase the effect of climax.

Functions:

· Helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterance.

· Serves to increase the effect of climax

· To break the monotomy of p. c. (syntacticalchiasmus)

· Brings in some new shade of meaning/ additional emphasis on some portion of the second part

· adds rhythm and balance to the utterance

lexical chiasmus or chiasmatic repetition- Both parts of the parallel construction have the same, the normal word-order. However, the witty arrangement of the words has given the utterance an epigrammatic character. “His jokes were sermons, and his sermons jokes” “’Tis strange,—but true; for truth is always strange” “But Tom's no more—and so no more of Tom” (Byron)

37. Enumeration.

· E n и m e r a t i o nis a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in the same position (homogeneous parts of speech), are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity, remote though it may seem.

· Most of our notions are associated with other notions due to some kind of relation between them: dependence, cause and result, likeness, dissimilarity, sequence, experience (personal and/or social), proximity, etc.

· In fact, it is the associations plus social experience that have resulted in the formation of what is known as “semantic fields.” Enumeration, as an SD, may be conventionally called a sporadic semantic field, inasmuch as many cases of enumeration have no continuous existence in their manifestation as semantic fields do. The grouping of sometimes absolutely heterogeneous notions occurs only in isolated instances to meet some peculiar purport of the writer.

· “Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator„ his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee |rɪˈzɪdjʊərilɛɡəˈtiː|(наследникпозавещанию) , his sole friend and his sole mourner”|ˈmɔːnə|(плакальщик, присутствующийнапохоронах) (Dickens)

· The enumeration here is h e te r o g e n e o u s ; the legal terms placed in a string with such words as ‘friend’ and ‘mourner’ result in a kind of clash, a thing typical of any stylistic device. Here there is a clash between terminological vocabulary and common neutral words. In addition there is a clash of concepts: ‘friend’ and ‘mourner’ by force of enumeration are equal in significance to the business office of ‘executor’, ‘administrator’, etc. and also to that of ‘legatee’.

38. Suspense.

· S u ˈs p e n s e (неопределенность, тревога) i s a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. Thus the reader’s attention is held and his interest kept up, for example:

· “Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw “ (Charles Lamb)

· Sentences of this type are called p e r i o d i c s e n t e n c e s , or p e r i o d s . Their function is to create suspense, to keep the reader in a state of uncertainty and expectation.

· Suspense and climax sometimes go together. In this case all the information contained in the series of statement-clauses preceding the solution-statement are arranged in the order of gradation.

· This device is effective in more than one way, but the main purpose is to prepare the reader for the only logical conclusion of the utterance. It is a psychological effect that is aimed at in particular. ( helps to create the desired atmosphere of expectation and emotional tension which goes with it)

· The term “suspense” is also used in literary criticism to denote an expectant uncertainty about the outcome of the plot. To hold the reader in suspense means to keep the final solution just out of sight. Detective and adventure stories are examples of suspense fiction. The — theme, that which is known, and the rheme, that which is new, of the sentence are distanced from each other and the new information is withheld, creating the tension of expectation. Technically, suspense is organized with the help of embedded clauses (homogeneous members) separating the predicate from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence (utterance).

39. Climax and Anticlimax.

· C l i m a x is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance, as in:

· “It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem |dʒem| (жемчужина) of a city”

· Gradual increase in emotional evaluation in the first illustration and in significance in the second is realized by the distribution of the corresponding lexical items. Each successive unit is perceived as stronger than the preceding one. Of course, there are no objective linguistic criteria to estimate the degree of importance or significance of each constituent.

· It is only the formal homogeneity of these component parts and the test of synonymy in the words 'lovely', ‘beautiful’, 'fair,' ‘veritable gem’.

· A gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and quantitative.

· L o g i c a l с I i ma x based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. This relative importance may be evaluated both objectively and subjectively, the author’s attitude towards the objects or phenomena in question being disclosed.

· E m o t i o n a l c l i m a x is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning. Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences, more rarely in longer syntactical units. This is natural. Emotional charge cannot hold long.

· Q u a n t i t a t i v e c l i ma x is an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts, as in:

· “They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens." (Maugham)

· Here the climax is achieved by simple numerical increase.

· Indispensable constituents of climax are:

· a) the distributional constituent: close proximity of the component parts arranged in increasing order of importance or significance;

· b) the syntactical pattern: parallel constructions with possible lexical repetition;

· c) the connotative constituent: the explanatory context which helps the reader to grasp the gradation, as no... ever once in all his life, nobody ever, nobody, No beggars (Dickens); deep and wide, horrid, dark and tall (Byron); veritable (gem of a city).

· Climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought that defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in a complete semantic reversal of the idea is called anticlimax. This sudden break in the semantic order, logical or emotional significance of the components is often indicated by emphatic punctuation, as, for example a dash in writing and intonation, pause in oral speech:

· He was inconsolable – for an afternoon (J. Galsworthy).

· Anticlimax refers to a figure of speech in which statements gradually descend in order of importance. Unlike climax, anticlimax is the arrangement of a series of words, phrases, or clauses in order of decreasing importance.

· ex. She is a great writer, a mother and a good humorist.

40. Antithesis.

· In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view, it may be necessary not to find points of resemblance or association between it and some other thing or phenomenon, but to find points of sharp contrast.

· Stylistic opposition, which is given a special name, the term a n t i t h e s i s , is of a different linguistic nature: it is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs, as in:

· “Youth is lovely, age is lonely, Youth is fiery, age is frosty;” (Longfellow)

· Here the objectively contrasted pair is "youth" and "age". "Lovely" and "lonely" cannot be regarded as objectively opposite concepts, but being drawn into the scheme contrasting ‘youth’ and ‘age’, they display certain features which may be counted as antonymical.

· A line of demarcation must be drawn between logical opposition and stylistic opposition. Any opposition will be based on the contrasting features of two objects. These contrasting features are represented in pairs of words which we call antonyms, provided that all the properties of the two objects in question may be set one against another, as ‘saint’ —‘devil’, ‘reign’—‘serve’, ‘hell*—‘heaven’.

· It is not only the semantic aspect which explains the linguistic nature of antithesis, the structural pattern also plays an important role. Antithesis is generally moulded in parallel construction. The antagonistic features of the two objects or phenomena are more easily perceived when they stand out in similar structures.

· Antithesis is a device bordering between stylistics and logic. The extremes are easily discernible but most of the cases are intermediate. However, it is essential to distinguish between antithesis and what is termed c o n t r a s t . Contrast is a literary (not a linguistic) device based on logical opposition between the phenomena set one against another.

Function

to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view

to stress the heterogeneity of the

described phenomenon,

to show that the objest is a dialectical unity oftwo (or more) opposing features. (contradictory nature)

41. Asyndeton, Polysyndeton.

· A s y n d e t o n (бессоюзие), that is, connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. Here is an example: “Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered.” (Galsworthy) The deliberate omission of the subordinate conjunction "because" helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose.

· Asyndeton means «absence of conjunctions". Asyndetic connection of sentences and parts of sentences is based on the lexical meanings of the unites combined. The stylistic function of asyndeton is similar to that of ellipsis: brevity, acceleration of the tempo, colloquial character. E. g.: «You can't tell whether you are eating apple-pie or German sausage, or strawberries and cream. It all seems cheese. There is too much odour about cheese» (Jerome).

· P o l y s y n d e t o n is the stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part, as in: “The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.” (Dickens)

· The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical. The conjunctions and other connectives, being generally unstressed elements, when placed before each meaningful member, will cause the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables—the essential requirement of rhythm in verse.

· Polysyndeton has a disintegrating function. It generally combines homogeneous elements of thought into one whole

· resembling enumeration. But, unlike enumeration, which integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole, polysyndeton causes each member of a string of facts to stand out conspicuously. That is why we say that polysyndeton has a disintegrating function. Enumeration shows things united; polysyndeton shows them isolated.

· Polysyndeton has also the function of expressing sequence.

42. The Gap-sentence Link.

· Gap-s e n t e n e e l i n k (GSL) is a term, used for a peculiar type of connection of sentences . The connection is not immediately apparent and it requires a certain mental effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, in other words, to bridge the semantic gap. Here is an example: “She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy. ” (Galsworthy)

· In this sentence the second part, which Is hooked on to the first by the conjunction and, seems to be unmotivated or, in other words, the whole sentence seems to be logically incoherent. But this is only the first impression. After a more careful supralinear semantic analysis it becomes clear that the exact logical variant of the utterance would be:

· ‘Those who ought to suffer were enjoying themselves in Italy (where well-to-do English people go for hoiydays).’

· Consequently, GSL is a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader’s perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, but not worded.

· The gap-sentence link is generally indicated by and or but. There is no asyndetic GSL, inasmuch as connection by asyndeton can be carried out only by semantic ties easily and immediately perceived.

· While maintaining the unity of the utterance syntactically the author leaves the interpretation of the link between the two sentences to the mind of the reader. It is the imaginative mind only that can decode a message expressed by a stylistic device.

· The gap-sentence link has various functions. It may serve to signal the introduction of inner represented speech; it may be used to indicate a subjective evaluation of the facts; it may introduce an effect resulting from a cause which has already had verbal expression. In all these functions GSL displays an unexpected coupling of ideas. Even the causeand effect relations, logical as they are, when embodied in GSL structures are not so obvious.

· The gap-sentence link as a stylistic device is based on the peculiarities of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech.

43. Ellipsis.

· E l l i p s i s Is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the situation. But this typical feature of the spoken language assumes a new quality when used in the written language. It becomes a stylistic device inasmuch as it supplies suprasegmental information. An elliptical sentence in direct intercourse is not a stylistic device. It is simply a norm of the spoken language.

· Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence. It would perhaps be adequate to call sentences lacking certain members “incomplete sentences", leaving the term e l l i p s i s to specify structures where we recognize a digression from the traditional literary sentence structure.

· While in colloquial speech ellipsis is the natural outcome of extra-lingual conditions, in other varieties of speech it is used with certain stylistic aims in view. Thus it imparts a kind of emotional tension to the author's narration. Sometimes the omission of subjects contribute to the acceleration of the tempo of speech:

· «Не became one of the prominent men of the House. Spoke clearly and modestly, and was never too long. Held the House where men of higher abilities «bored» it» (Collins).

· The most characteristic feature of the written variety of language is amplification (расширение, распространение), which by its very nature is opposite to ellipsis. Amplification generally demands expansion of the ideas with as full and as exact relations between the parts of the utterance as possible. Ellipsis, on the contrary, being the property of colloquial language, does not express what can easily be supplied by the situation. This is perhaps the reason that elliptical sentences are rarely used as stylistic devices. Sometimes the omission of a link-verb adds emotional colouring and makes the sentence sound more emphatic,

44. Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis).

Definition

Aposiopesis can be generally defined as "A stopping short for rhetorical effect." ( Golperin) This term which in Greek means “silence”, denotes intentional abstention from continuing the utterance to the end.(Skrebnev)

Functions

We should distinguish aposiopesis as a stylistic device and as a peculiarity of a colloquial language.

1) In spoken, colloquial language (not a device):

· unwillingness to proceed;

· the idea can be understood by the implication embodied in what has been said;

· uncertajnty as to what should be said.

2) In written variety, a stylistic device:

· imitate spontaneous oral speech. I

· focus the attention on what is left unsaid. Therefore the interrelation between what is given and what is new becomes more significant, inasmuch as the given is what is said and the new—what is left unsaid. There is a phrase in colloquial English which has become very familiar:

"Good intentions but—"

(The implication here is that nothing has come of what it was planned to accomplish)

· the implication of a warning

“If you continue your intemperate way of living, in six months’ time …”

· the implication is a threat

“You just come home or I’ll …”

(We understand the implication through the context:words were said by an angry father to his son over the telephone )

· to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions

(the speaker cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of language). Thus in Don Juan's address to Julia, who is left behind:

"And oh! if e'er I should forget, / swear— ;i But that's impossible, and cannot be." (Byron)

· euphemistic considerations—unwillingness to name a thing on the ground of its being offensive.

"Then, Mamma, i hardly like to let the words cross my lips, but they have wicked, wicked attractions out there—like dancing girls that—that charm snakes and dance without—Miss Moir with downcast eyes, broke off significantly and blushed, whilst the down on her upper lip quivered modestly." (Cronin)

Syntactical structures

· complex sentences, in particular in conditional sentences, the 1st-clause being given in full and the second part only implied.

Graphical markers

dashes and dots are used. It is only in cast-iron( четкий) structures that full stops may also appear, as in the well-known phrases “Good intentions, but”, or “It depends”.

Intonation

The pause after the break is generally charged with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance.

45. Questions-in-the-Narrative. Rhetorical questions.

Questions-in-the-Narrative

Definition

A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. It becomes akin to a parenthetical statement with strong emotional implications. Unlike rhetorical questions Q-in-the N do not contain statements. But being answered by one who knows the answer, they assume a semi-exclamatory nature, as in 'what to view?' (Byron's "Don Juan"J

"And starting, she awoke, and what to view?

Oh, Powers of Heaven. What dark eye meets she there? 'Tis—'tis her father's—fix'd upon the pair."

Function

· give the impression of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader.

"Scrooge knew he was dead! Of course he did. How could it be, otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don't know how many years." (Dickens)

In Oratorical style:

· to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech

· to chain the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering.

· give the listeners time to absorb what has been said, and prepare for the next point.

Question-in-the-narrative may also remain unanswered, as in:

"How long must it go on? How long must we suffer? Where is the end? What is the end?" (Norris)

These sentences show a gradual transition to rhetorical questions. There are only hints of the possible answers in the questions that suggest that the existing state of affairs should be put an end to and that we should not suffer any longer.

So, traditional psychological nature of a question implies answer on behalf of the interlocutor. In the Q-in-the-N we observe deviation from the norm, which has a certain volume of emotional charger This deviation (being in fact a modification of the general function of interrogative sentences) is much more clearly apparent in rhetorical questions.

Definition

The rhetorical question Is a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. In other words, the question is no" longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence. The interrogative form makes the pronouncement still more categorical, in that it excludes any interpretation beyond that contained in the rhetorical question.

Syntactic Structure

1) rhetorical questions are generally structurally embodied in complex sentences with the subordinate clause containing the pronouncement. Due to subordinate clause the rhetorical question doesn’t lose its specific quality and is not regarded as an ordinary question.

For example:

"Are these the remedies for a starving and desperate populace?" "Is there not blood enough upon your penal code, that jnore must be poured forth to ascend to Heaven and testify against you?" (Byron)

2) Simple sentences with negation.

"Have I not had to wrestle with my lot?

Have I. not suffered things to be forgiven?" (Byron)

Negative-interrogative sentences have always an additional shade of meaning implied in them: sometimes doubt, sometimes assertion, sometimes suggestion. (they are full of emotive meaning and modality)

Functions

· Make the statement sound more categorical

· Transfer some emotive meaning

¨ Doubt, sometimes assertion, sometimes suggestion in negative RQ

¨ Challenge

"Who is here so vile that will not love his country?" (Shakespeare's)

¨ Scorn and contempt for Parliament and the laws it passes.

Is there not blood enough upon your penal code, that jnore must be poured forth to ascend to Heaven and testify against you?" (Byron)

¨ Irony

"Is the poor privilege to turn the key Upon the captive, freedom?" (Byron)

Rhetorical questions, due to their power of expressing a variety of modal shades of meaning, are most often used in publicistic style and particularly in oratory, where the rousing of emotions is the effect generally aimed at.

46. Litotes.

Definition

Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation, though the positive effect is weakened and some lack of the speaker’s confidence in his statement is implied.

“Her face was not unhandsome” (Kucharenro) a specific form of meiosis ( Skrebnev)

Structure

Negation (particle “not”, without) plus noun or adjectivenegative in semantics (or with negative affixes)

Function

· Convey additional connotation. The function of litotes has much in common with that of understatement - both weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of litotes lies in its specific "double negative" structure and in its weakening only the positive evaluation.

· convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. E. g. It's not a bad thing

· In personages' speech it is used for conveying a reserved statement or ironical attitude to the object, e.g. "Suppose, "he said, "someone had got a line on him, forced him into this racket, as you forced Harbin to double-cross... ". -"It's possible". - "And they murdered him in case he talked when he was arrested". - "It's not impossible" (S.M.).

· In scientific prose style it is used to convey carefulness in the expression of thought, e.g. // is not uncommon for grammarians to distinguish between these phenomena. ("Language")

· In poetry it is sometimes used to suggest that language fails to convey the poet's feelings and so he uses negations to express the inexpressible, as in the well-known Sonnet 130 by William Shakespeare. E.g. 'My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun' is a clear-cut litotes although the object to which the eyes are compared is generally perceived as having only positive qualities.

47. Represented Speech, its types and stylistic value

Definition

Represented speech –representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken; whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words, writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression.

Represented speech exists in two varieties: 1) uttered represented speech and 2) unuttered or inner represented speech

Uttered-the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language. Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change. For example:

"Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He could."

(Dreiser)

Structural model: there is either an indication of the shift from the author's speech to the uttered represented speech by some introductory word (smiled, said, asked, etc.) or by a formal break like a full stop at the end of the sentence, as in:

"In consequence he Was quick to suggest a walk... Didn't Clyde want to go?" (Dreiser)

Stylistic value

The device of uttered represented speech enables the writer to reshape the utterance according to the normal polite literary usage.

Styles: balles-latters, newspaper. Uttered represented speech in newspaper communications is somewhat different from that in the belles-lettres style. In the former, it is generally used to quote the words of speakers in Parliament or at public meetings.

Unattered - a device which conveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, thus presenting his thoughts and feelings. Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, expresses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language by the character That is why it abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constructions, breaks, and other means of conveying feelings and psychological states

“His nervousness about this disclosure irritated him profoundly; she had no business to make him feel like that—a wife and a husband being one person”

Morphological pattern

ü tense forms are shifted to the past; t

ü he third person personal pronouns replace the first and second.

ü The interrogative word-order is maintained as in direct speech.

ü The fragmentary character of the utterance manifests itself in unfinished sentences, exclamations and in one-member sentences

Structural pattern Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, is usually introduced by verbs of mental perception, as think, meditate, feel, occur (an idea occurred to...), wonder, ask, tell oneself, understand and the like. Very frequently, however, inner represented speech thrusts itself into the narrative of the author without any introductory words and the shift from the author's speech to inner represented speech is more or less imperceptible (can be graphical signs – semicolon for ex.)

Stylistic value

This device is undoubtedly an excellent one to depict a character. It gives the writer an opportunity to show the inner springs which guide his character's actions and utterances.

Being a combination of the author's speech and that of the character, inner represented speech, on the one hand, fully discloses the feelings and thoughts of the character, his world outlook, and, on the other hand, through efficient and sometimes hardly perceptible interpolations by the author himself, makes the desired impact on the reader.

its specific function, which is to penetrate into the inner life of the personages of an imaginary world, which is the exclusive domain of belles-lettres.

Styles: balles-latters (esp. emotive prose)

48. Convergence of stylistic devices.

Convergence is an aggregate of stylistic devices partaking in one stylistic function. The components could be diverse. The most important thing – the function they perform.

On the whole, there have been established well-accepted criteria for identifying convergence – in a segment of a text there must be an interaction of two or more stylistic means, participating in one stylistic function and possessing more expressive potential than a single stylistic device. Participating stylistic means work together in convergence to promote the same idea, emotion, attitude or intention so that these semantic elements could not be overlooked by the reader

For example, the extract from H.Melville’s “Mobi- Dick” where the ocean is described ¹⁰ .

“And heaved and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as if its vast tides were a conscience”.“

In this case, writes I. Arnold , Convergence is created with the whole set of stylistic devices: Inversion, Repetition, Polysindeton, Rhythm, the coinage “unrestingly”, the epithet “vast”, unusual simile “tides – conscience”. All the aggregate creates the image of waves that is really palpable.

Stylistic function

A stylistic function is generally recognized as an expressive potential of interacting linguistic means in a text which conveys emotive, expressive, evaluative and aesthetic information, rather than logical content of the text. To date, there are no complete classifications of stylistic functions, though I. Arnol’d distinguishes characterological, descriptive, emotive and evaluative stylistic functions (Arnol’d, 2004: 82). There is also a point of view that stylistic functions realized by a stylistic convergence fall into one general and several specific functions. The general or constant stylistic function of a stylistic convergence is an expressive function as a result of which the convergence attracts and keeps the reader’s attention through a certain segment of the text (Kopnina, 2001: 159). Specific stylistic functions are further divided into: 1) a descriptive function, 2) a characterological function, 3) an emotion-intensifying function, 4) an evaluativecharacteristic function, 5) a reality-intensifying function, 6) an intonation-rhythmical function, 7) a device-foregrounding function, 8) an advertising or intriguing function, and 9) an argumentative-rhetorical function (Kopnina, 2001: 162 – 173).

49. The Belles-Lettres Style: Language of Emotive prose.

A. The belles-lettres style

belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three sub-styles are: '

1. The language of poetry, or simply verse.

2. Emotive pгоse, or the language of fiction.

3. Т'he language of the drama.

Each of these substyles has certain common features, typical of the general belles-lettres style, which make up the foundation of the style, by which the particular style is made recognizable and can therefore be singled out.

Common features:

"aesthetico-cognitive" function which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure, a pleasure which is derived from the form in which the content is wrought. (it has something in common with scientific style, but the aim of science- to prove, of belles-letter - to suggest interpretations of phenomena by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer.)

.Linguistic common features

1. Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

(Imagery is mainly produced by the interplay of different meanings. Concrete objects are easily perceived by the senses. Abstract notions are perceived by the mind. When an abstract notion is by the force of the mind represented through a concrete object, an image is the result. Imagery may be built on the interrelation of two abstract notions or two concrete objects or an abstract and a concrete one.)

2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3. A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

4. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy.

5. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems).

2. Emotive prose

ü The substyle of emotive prose has the same common features as have been pointed out for the belles-lettres style in general; but all these features are correlated differently in emotive prose.

ü The imagery is not so rich as it is in poetry; the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high as in poetry; the idiosyncrasy of the author is not so clearly discernible.

ü the combination of the literary variant or the language, both in words and syntax, with the colloquial, variant

ü there are always two forms of communication present—monologue (the writer's speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters).

ü The language of the writer conforms to the literary norms of the given period in the development of the English literary language.

ü depicting a hero through his speech.. True, this language is also subjected to some kind of reshaping. The colloquial speech has been made "literature-like." This means that only the most striking elements of what might have been a conversation in life are made use of, and even these have undergone some kind of transformation.

ü elements from other styles as well. Thus we find elements of the newspaper style (see, for example, Sinclair Lewis's " Can't Happen Here"); the official style (see, for example, thebusiness letters exchanged between two characters in Galsworthy's novel "The Man of Property"); the style of scientific prose (see excerpts from Cronin's "The Citadel" where medical language is used).

50. The Belles-Lettres Style: Language of Poetry.

BELLES-LETTRES style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three sub-styles are: '

1. The language of poetry, or simply verse.

2. Emotive pгоse, or the language of fiction.

3. Т'he language of the drama.

Common features:

"aesthetico-cognitive" function which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure, a pleasure whic h is derived from the form in which the content is wrought. (it has something in common with scientific style, but the aim of science- to prove, of belles-letter - to suggest interpretations of phenomena by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer.)

.Linguistic common features

1. Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3. A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

4. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy.

5. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems).

LANGUAGE OF POETRY (остальное в вопросах 17,18,19)

Features

ü its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances.

ü Both the syntactical and semantic aspects ,that is imposed by the rhythmic pattern, and the result is brevity of expression, epigram-like utterances, and fresh, unexpected imagery.

ü Syntactically this brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical peculiarities.

ü Rhythm and rhyme are immediately distinguishable properties of the poetic substyle provided they are wrought into compositional patterns.

More Features of Verse

IMAGERY

, which being the generic feature of the belles-lettres style assumes in poetry a compressed form: it is rich in associative power, frequent in occurrence and varied in methods and devices of materialization.

Imagery is a use of language media which will create a sensory perception of an abstract notion by arousing certain associations (sometimes very remote) between the general and the particular, the abstract and the concrete, the conventional and the factual.

In decoding a given image, the dictionary meanings, the contextual meanings, the emotional colouring and, last but not least, the associations which are awakened by the image should all be called into play.

Images from a linguistic point of view are mostly built on metaphor, metonymy and simile.

Images maybe divided into three categories: two concrete (visual, aural), and one abstract (relational).

ü Visual images are the easiest of perception, inasmuch as they are readily caught by what is called the mental eye. In other words, visual images are shaped through concrete pictures of objects, the impression of which is present in our mind. Thus in:

"... and then my state,

Like to the lark at break of day arising

From sullen earth..." (Shakespeare)

the simile has called up a visual image, that of a lark rising.

ü Aural images are built by onomatopoeia it will make us hear the actual sounds of nature or things

'And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain' (E. A. Poe),

ü Arelational image shows the relation between objects through another kind of relation, and the two kinds of relation will secure a more exact realization of the inner connections between things or phenomena.

Thus in:

"Men of England, Heirs of Glory, Heroes of unwritten story. Nurslings of one mighty mother, Hopes of her, and one another." (Shelley)

such notions as “heirs of glory', 'heroes of unwritten story', 'nurslings of ... mother', 'hopes of her...' all create relational images, inasmuch as they aim at showing the relations between the constituents of the metaphors but not the actual (visual) images of, in this case, 'heir', 'hero', 'nursling', 'hope'.

Syntactical: parallel constriction, passive voice, asyndeton, synonymic repetition.

ICON

is of the ways of building up images which Archibald A. Hill, an American scholar of linguistics, introduced. The icon is a direct representation, not necessarily a picture, of a thing or an event. In discussions of imagery, it have usually been called simply descriptions."

An icon must always rest on some specific, concretizing use of words, and their forms (e.g. tenses of verbs), and/or the arrangement of sentences, which secure the desired image.

VOLUME OF EMOTIONAL COLOURING.

Great volume due to the rhythmic foundation of verse, but more particularly to the great number of emotionally coloured words.

VOCABULARY

As regards the vocabulary, it can be described as noticeably literary. The colloquial elements, though they have elbowed their way into poetry at some stages in its development, still remain essentially unimportant and, at certain periods, were quite alien to the style. But even common literary words become conspicuous because of the new significance they acquire in a line of poetry. ( stylistically coloured)

In poetry words become more conspicuous, as if they were attired in some mysterious manner, and mean more than they mean in ordinary neutral communications. Words-in poetic language live a longer life than ordinary words.. This is, of course achieved mainly by the connections the words have with one another and^ to some extent, by the rhythmical design which makes the words stand out in a more isolated manner so that they seem to possess a greater degree of independence and significance

SEMANTIC ENTROPY

The sequence of words in an utterance is hardly, if at all, predictable in poetry.

Semantic entropy is, therefore, an inherent property of poetic language. But sometimes this entropy grows so large that it stuns and stupefies the reader, preventing him from decoding the message, or it makes him exert his mental powers to the utmost in order to discover the significance given by the poet to ordinary words. This is the case with some of the modern English and American poetryPoetry of this kind will always remain "the domain of the few." Instead of poetic precision we find a deliberate plunge into semantic entropy which renders the message incomprehensible. The increase of entropy in poetic language is mainly achieved by queer word combinations,fragmentary syntax—almost without logical connections.

51. The Belles-Lettres Style: Language of the Drama

BELLES-LETTRES style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three sub-styles are: '

1. The language of poetry, or simply verse.

2. Emotive pгоse, or the language of fiction.

3. Т'he language of the drama.

Common features:

.Linguistic common features

1. Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3. A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

4. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy.

5. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems).

Drama - the language of plays mainly consists of dialogues. The author’s speech is almost entirely excluded, except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions. Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure. The language of a play has the following peculiarities:

- it is stylized (it strives to retain the modus of literary English but don’t exclude the personal idiosyncrasies of the writer);

- it presents the variety of spoken language;

- it has redundancy(избыточность) of information caused by necessity to amplify(усилить) the utterance;

- monologue is never interrupted by exclamatory words by a person to whom this speech is addressed;

- Character’s utterances are longer than in the natural conversation,

- two or more questions can be asked in monological utterance in drama what is untypical for an ordinary conversation,

-no digression from the main topic in the dialogues of drama, unless it is the purport of the writer.

The language of the characters is in no way the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language, although the playwright seeks to reproduce actual conversation as far as the norms of the written language will allow.

52. Publicistic Style: Orator’s speech. Its specific features.

The publicistic style became a separate style in the mid. of the 18th century and treats certain political, social, economic, cultural problems.

Substyles:

· a spoken variety-oratorical substyle.

· the essay,

· journalistic articles.

The function (brain-washing function)- to influence public opinion, to make accept the view point of the writer as only one correct.

Features

· brevity of expression.

· Combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal,

· Logical syntactical structure with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing (paragraph introducers),

· To achieve emotional appeal – emotive words, imagery, both trite and fresh SD, question-in-the-narrative etc.

THE ORATORICAL STYLE of language is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems and addresses on solemn occasions, as public weddings, funerals, etc.

Features:

· Direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen), can be repeated in the course of the speech:

· The use of 2^nd person pronoun (you),

· Sometimes contraction and colloquial words,

· Ready-made phrases- clinches,

· SD are determined by the conditions of the communication ( allusions, antithesis formed in parallel constructions, repetitions, climax, anadiplosis, suspense, rhetorical questions, parallel constr. Q-in-the-N )

· Repetition- to add weight to the words, to enable the listeners to follow the main idea,

· Synonymic repetition- to fill up the speech with details,

· The change of intonation to break the monotony

· Traditional simile and metaphors , not to divert the attention and to sound more convincing,

· Questions are most frequent because they promote closer contact with the audience.

53. Publicistic Style: The Essay.

The publicistic style became a separate style in the mid. of the 18th century and treats certain political, social, economic, cultural problems.

Substyles:

· a spoken variety-oratorical substyle.

· the essay,

· journalistic articles.

The function (brain-washing function)- to influence public opinion, to make accept the view point of the writer as only one correct.

Features

· brevity of expression.

· Combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal,

· Logical syntactical structure with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing (paragraph introducers),

· To achieve emotional appeal – emotive words, imagery, both trite and fresh SD, question-in-the-narrative etc.

AN ESSAY (16th c)is a series of personal and witty comments upon the subject, not a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter.

FEATURES: 1) brevity of expression, 2) the use of the 1st person singular, which justifies a personal approach to the problems treated, 3) an expanded use of connectives to correlate the ideas, 4) the abundant use of emotive words, 5) the use of similes and sustained metaphors as one of the media for the cognitive process. The essay aims at a more lasting, hence, at a slower effect. Epigrams, paradoxes and aphorisms are common. Essays that have a lot of features of scientific style- review, memoir, treatise.

54. Publicistic Style: The language of journalistic articles.

The publicistic style became a separate style in the mid. of the 18th century and treats certain political, social, economic, cultural problems.

Substyles:

· a spoken variety-oratorical substyle.

· the essay,

· journalistic articles.

The function (brain-washing function)- to influence public opinion, to make accept the view point of the writer as only one correct.

Features

· brevity of expression.

· Combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal,

· Logical syntactical structure with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing (paragraph introducers),

· To achieve emotional appeal – emotive words, imagery, both trite and fresh SD, question-in-the-narrative etc.

JOURNALISTIC ARTICLES -impersonal. Features depend upon the subject covered.

Scientific articles

· Little words with emotive meaning, SDs,

· Expanded system of connectives,

· Terms

Political article

· Bookish words, neologisms, traditional word-combinations, parenthesis,

· Argumentation and emotional appeal through emphatic constructions, 'how dim the outlook for victory was'

· Humorous effect can be achieved through the use of words and phrases which normally are out of the range of this sort of article: melancholy, graciously, extending his best wishes, and by periphrases.

.Literary reviews stand closer to essays both by their content and by their linguistic form.

· More abstract words of logical meaning are used in them;

· they often resort to emotional language and less frequently to traditional set expressions.

55. The features of the Newspaper style.

English newspaper style - a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. The primary function of newspaper style is to impart information, only printed matter serving this purpose comes under newspaper style proper. Such matter can be classed as: 1. brief news items and communiqués; 2. press reports (parliamentary, of court proceedings, etc.); 3. articles purely informational in character; 4. advertisements and announcements.

To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyze the following basic newspaper features: 1) brief news items; 2) advertisements and announcements; 3) headlines;

BRIEF ITEMS: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary.

Specific features are:

a) special political and economic terms; b) non-term political vocabulary (public, people, unity);

c) newspaper cliches; (pressing problem) d) abbreviations; e) neologisms.f) voc-ry devoid of emotional colouring,

Grammatical parameters :

1. complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;

2. verbal constructions (inf, ger, partic.);

3. syntactical complexes ( nominative with the infinitive to avoid mentioning the sourse of information);

4. attributive noun groups;

5. specific word order (fixed) the "five-w-and-h-pattern rule" (who-what-why-how-where-when)and for a long time strictly adhered to it. In terms of grammar this fixed sentence structure may be expressed in the following manner: Subject—Predicate (+Object)—Adverbial modifier of reason (manner)— Adverbial modifier..of place-Adverbial modifier of time, e.g..

HEADLINE-the title given to a news item or an article The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news is to follow about. They show the reporter's or the paper's attitude to the facts reported or commented on, thus also performing the function of instructing the reader. English headlines are short and catching, they "compact the gist of news stories into a few eye-snaring words.

Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns:

1. full declarative sentences;

2. interrogative sentences;

3. nominative sentences;

4. elliptical sentences;

a. with an auxiliary verb omitted, e.g. 'Initial report not expected until June!' (The Guardian), 'Yachtsman spotted" (Morning Star)]

b. with the subject omitted, e.g. 'Will win' (Morning Star), lWill give Mrs. Onassis $ 250,00(Xa year'.(77iЈ New York Times);

c. with the subject and part;of-the predicate omitted, e.g. 'Off to the sun' (Morning Star), 'Still in danger' (The Guardian)

5. sentences with articles omitted;

6. phrases with verbals;

7. questions in the forms of statements;

8. complex sentences;

9. headlines including direct speech.

Vocabulary- the same as in the brief news items, But headlines also abound in emotionally coloured words and phrases, as the italicised words

Furthermore, to attract the reader's attention, headline writers often resort to a deliberate breaking-up of set expressions, in particular fused set expressions, and deformation of special terms, a stylistic device capable of producing a strong emotional effect, e.g.

Cakes and Bitter Ale (The Sunday Times) Conspirator-in-chief Still at Large (The Guardian)

ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS. The function of advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader. There are two types of them: classified and non-classified. In classified the information is arranged according to the subject matter: births, marriages, deaths, business offers, personal etc.

There are 2 basic types of ads and announcements in the modern English newspaper:

· classified -various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name

· non-classified(separate)-, their variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all be pointed out.

Features

· stereotyped patterns of structure,

· ellipsis,( not a SD- used to economize space)

· brevity,

· absence of articles, punctuation marks- telegram like.

· Essentially neutral voc-ry, sometimes emotional colouring to attract attention( in personal section)

As for the non-classified advertisements, it is hard to point out any essential features common to all. The reader's attention is attracted by every possible means: typographical, graphical and stylistic, both lexical and syntactical. Here there is no call for brevity, as the advertiser may buy as much space as he chooses

THE EDITORIAL The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Editorials comment on the political and other events of the day. Their purpose is to give the editor's opinion and interpretation of the news published and suggest to the reader that it is the correct one. Emotional coloring is achieved with the help of various SD, both lexical and syntactical, the use of which is traditional ( trite metaphors, epithets), traditional periphrases,

Vocabulary

That of brief news +emotionally coloured words. Alongside political words and expressions, terms, clichés and abbreviations one can find colloquial words and expressions, slang, and professionalisms. The language of editorial articles is characterized by a combination of different strata of vocabulary, which enhances the emotional effect.

56. Scientific Prose Style.

The language of science is governed by the aim to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. It has 3 subdivisions: 1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose (emotive words, elements of colloquial style).

The peculiarities are:

· objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness.

· ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning.

· The language means tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.

· The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. impersonal passive constructions are used with the verbs suppose, assume, presume, conclude, infer, point out, etc., as in: 'It should be pointed out', 'It must not be assumed', 'It must be emphasized

characteristic features:

1. the logical sequence of utterances;

2. the use of terms specific to each given branch of science, creation of new terms;

3. so-called sentence-patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory- pronouncements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof., argumentative and formulative - The writer's own ideas are also shaped^in formulae, which are the enunciation (изложение) of a doctrine or theory, of a principle, an argument, the result of an investigation, etc.

4. the use of quotations and references;

5. the frequent use of foot-note which helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas.

The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. Unlike the belles-letters style it is never original, individual but it is always contextually bound and devoid of individuality and originality.

57. The style of Official Documents.

is the most conservative. It is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants: 1. the language of business documents; 2. the language of legal documents; 3. that of diplomacy; 4. that of military documents.

The main aim - to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking, to reach agreement between two contracting parties.

Common Features

· the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions, for example:

M. P. (Member of Parliament), Gvt (gwernmen/), H.M.S. (His Majesty's Steamship),

· the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning, In military documents sometimes metaphorical names are given to mountains, rivers, hills or villages, but these metaphors are perceived as code signs and have no aesthetic value,

· Words with emotive meaning are not to be found in the style of official documents. except those which are used in business letters as conventional phrases of greeting or close, as Dear Sir, yours faithfully.

· conventionality of expression;

· absence of any emotiveness;

· the encoded character of language; symbols and

· a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence.

Each of substyles makes use of special terms.

Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning.

In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols.

the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form.

Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members. Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal.. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation.

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Настоящий материал опубликован пользователем Жибарь Елена Евгеньевна. Инфоурок является информационным посредником и предоставляет пользователям возможность размещать на сайте методические материалы. Всю ответственность за опубликованные материалы, содержащиеся в них сведения, а также за соблюдение авторских прав несут пользователи, загрузившие материал на сайт

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Скачать материал

- 30.10.2021 8241
- RAR 285.6 кбайт
- 39 скачиваний
- Оцените материал:
Если Вы считаете, что материал нарушает авторские права либо по каким-то другим причинам должен быть удален с сайта, Вы можете оставить жалобу на материал.
Удалить материал
Автор материала

Жибарь Елена Евгеньевна
Учитель
- На сайте: 9 лет и 5 месяцев
- Подписчики: 0
- Всего просмотров: 123293
- Всего материалов: 84
Об авторе

Категория/ученая степень: Высшая категория

Место работы: ГБОУ СОШ № 546 Санкт-Петербурга

В образовании с 2015 году, после окончания Ленинградского социально-педагогического колледжа. Получив профессию "Учитель начальных и средних классов иностранного языка" решила не останавливаться и в 2016 году поступила в Южный Федеральный Университет на отделение "Лингвистика". После колледжа устроилась работать в систему дополнительного образования, была совместителем в школе. И все время работа для меня любимой. Почему? Потому что дети дарят те эмоции, которые ни чем заменить нельзя! Любимая работа, потому что я люблю свой предмет "английский язык". Мои ученики и я достигли не малых результатов: победы в олимпиадах различного уровня, отметки "отлично" и хорошие знания по моему предмету, мы стали друзьями. Да и сама я не стою на месте, ежегодные курсы повышения квалификации, участие и победы в олимпиадах для педагогов, победы в Краевом педагогическом конкурсе "Педагогический дебют - 2017", в номинации педагог дополнительного образования, а так же во Всероссийском конкурсе "Педагогический дебют - 2018", лауреат краевого конкурса «Сердце отдаю детям», участие в семинарах в качестве спикера или слушателя. "Цель учителя не наполнить сосуд знаниями, а разжечь огонь познания" Сократ

Подробнее об авторе

Памятка для подготовки к ОГЭ по русскому языку "Стилистика"

Файл будет скачан в формате:

2729

101

03.04.2024

Русский язык

Подготовка к ОГЭ и ЕГЭ

7 класс

8 класс

9 класс

«Инфоурок»

Материал разработан автором:

Мешкова Анна Александровна

учитель начальных классов

Об авторе

Категория/ученая степень: Первая категория

Учитель начальных классов, дефектолог. Опыт работы - с 2013 года. На данный момент работаю репетитором и методистом. Мне нравится представлять учебный материал в доступной и интересной для детей форме. Разрабатываю методические пособия в формате обучающих мультфильмов, где в понятной и игровой форме объясняется новая тема. Буду рада сотрудничеству!

Подробнее об авторе

Краткое описание методической разработки

Данная методическое пособие представляет собой памятку, где в форме схем и таблиц показываются основные понятия стилистики русского языка. Можно использовать при изучении данной темы, а также для повторения материала при подготовке к ОГЭ.

Памятка включает в себя:

Стили русского литературного языка (подробный разбор)

2. Языковые средства связи частей языка

3. Композиционные особенности текстов разных типов

4. Средства выразительности. Определения некоторых троп и фигур

Развернуть описание

Файл будет скачан в формате:

Русский язык

Подготовка к ОГЭ и ЕГЭ

7 класс

8 класс

9 класс

03.04.2024

2729

101

«Инфоурок»

Материал разработан автором:

Мешкова Анна Александровна

учитель начальных классов

Об авторе

Категория/ученая степень: Первая категория

Подробнее об авторе

Курс повышения квалификации

Основы зоологии и изучения мира животных

Этот курс уже прошли 20 человек

Курс повышения квалификации

Английский для психологов

Этот курс уже прошли 12 человек

Курс повышения квалификации

Английский для взрослых: разговорная практика

Сейчас обучается 198 человек из 41 региона
Этот курс уже прошли 174 человека

Курс повышения квалификации

Особенности подготовки к проведению ВПР в рамках мониторинга качества образования обучающихся по учебному предмету "Английский язык" в условиях реализации ФГОС ООО и ФГОС СОО

36 ч.

699 руб.

Подать заявку О курсе

Сейчас обучается 447 человек из 61 региона
Этот курс уже прошли 1 767 человек

Смотреть ещё 6 054 курса

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@~$просы к экзамену по СТИЛИСТИКЕ-ОЗО-2020-2021.doc

Åëåíà Îíèñàð

;

‑

èiz_[1]`£

èiz_

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@Вопросы к экзамену по СТИЛИСТИКЕ-ОЗО-2020-2021.doc

2020/2021

STYLISTICS

Examination Questions

Problems of stylistic research. Types of stylistic research and branches of stylistics.

Type of stylistic research and branches are distinguished: lingua stylistics and literary stylistics.

Both, Lingua-stylistics and Literary Stylistics study the common ground of: the literary language from the point of view of its variability; the idiolect of a writer; poetic speech that has its specific laws.

The difference proceeds from different points of analysis: Linguistic stylistics studies functional styles, the linguistic nature of expressive means, their systematic character and functions.

Literary stylistics focuses on composition of a work of art, various literary genres, the writer's outlook.

Functional stylistics is branch of stylistics which investigates, researches, studies functional styles.

All types of stylistics consider the same source of material for stylistic analysis:
sounds, words phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts.

So any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level-forming branches that include:
Stylistic Phonetics, Stylistic Lexicology and Stylistic Grammar.

Comparative stylistics is connected with the contrastive study of more than one language.

Stylistic Lexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and the interrelation (or interplay) of the connotative and denotative meanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic connotations of the word and the context.

Stylistic Phonetics is engaged in the study of style-forming phonetic features of the text. It describes the prosodic features of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in different types of speech (colloquial or oratory or recital).

Stylistic grammar:

a) Stylistic Morphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of specific grammatical forms and categories.

b) Stylistic Syntax Stylistic syntax has to do with the expressive order of words, types of syntactic links, figures of speech

Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines.

So any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level-forming branches that include:
Stylistic Phonetics, Stylistic Lexicology and Stylistic Grammar.

Any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level forming branches, that include: Stylistic Phonetics

Stylistic Phonetics is engaged in the study of style- forming features of a text (prosodic features, variants of pronunciation)

Stylistic Lexicology studies the semantic structure of the word, the interplay of its connotative and denotative meanings, interrelation of its stylistic connotations and the context.

Stylistic Grammar consist of two parts: stylistic morphology ( stylistic portantional of specific grammatical forms and categories number of the noun, tense forms of the verb, the article) syntax (has to do with expressive order of words, types of syntactic links, figures of speech: repetition, parallel construction, zeugma).

Stylistic interacts such theoretical discipline, such subject as semasiology.

Semasiology studies the meaning. Meaning correlates with all levels - morphemes, words, phrases, texts.
Practically all stylistic effects are based on the interplay between different kinds of meaning on different levels.

Onomasiology is the theory of naming dealing with the choice of words when naming or assessing some object or phenomenon.
In stylistic analysis we have to do with a transfer of nominal meaning in a text (metaphor, metonymy are based on prinsipal).

Varieties of Language. Meaning from a stylistic point of view.

The actual situation of the communication has evolved two varieties of language – the spoken and the written. The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a number of systems. Of the two varieties of language, the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used and in which it develops, can be described as the presence of an interlocutor. The written variety, presupposes the absence of an interlocutor. The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written in the form of a monologue. Spoken language – spontaneous, can’t be detached from the user. The forms of the written language replace those of the spoken language when dissemination of ideas is the purpose in view. It is the written variety of language with its careful organization and deliberate choice of words and constructions that can have political, cultural and educational influence on a wide and scattered public. Written language: abundance of conjunctions, adverbial phrases, complicated sentence units, long utterances, Spoken language: dialects.

General considerations of stylistic classification of the vocabulary. Neutral. Common literary and common colloquial vocabulary.

The whole of the word-stock of the English language may be divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character.

Neutral words are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. The neutral words have no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinctions in the sphere of usage. Common literary words are used in writing speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word. The literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary and colloquial, can be formed which stand in contrasting relation.

Common colloquial vocabulary borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial voc. Common colloquial words and set expressions lack homogeneity. Some of the lexical units are emotionally and stylistically coloured. Colloquial – kid, daddy; Neutral – child, father; Literary- infant,parent.

Special literary vocabulary: terms, poetic, archaic (archaic, obsolescent, obsolete), barbarisms (foreign), literary coinages (nonce-words)

Terms are directly connected with the concepts they denote. They belong to the scientific prose style. When used in other styles their function is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to refer to the occupation of a character. Poetic words sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. In an ordinary environment they may also have a satirical function. Some of them are archaic in essence. Archaic words there are several stages in the aging process of words: a word may become rarely used and be in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. Archaic proper are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English. Archaic words are predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. They are also used to create an elevated effect, to suit a solemn occasion.

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. Barbarisms are facts of the English language, we can find these words in dictionaries and they are labeled. Foreignisms are not registered by English dictionaries. Foreign words and phrases are generally italicized, barbarisms are not. One of the functions is to supply local colour.

New words are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given language. Nonce-word is coined to suit one particular occasion. The writer looks for smth that will adequately convey their idea to the mind of the reader:

Special Colloquial vocabulary: slang, jargonisms, professionalisms, dialectal, vulgarisms, colloquial coinages.

Colloquial words mark the message as informal, non-official, they are widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication Slang is expressive mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things. For the most part they sound vulgar, cynical and harsh. Their aim is to show the object of speech in the light of contemptuous ridicule: For example: money - cabbage. Jargonisms are a group of words whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group: the jargon of thieves is cant, the jargon of the army (military slang) picture show - battle, action. They are generally old words with entirely new meanings. Prolessionalisms are words used in a definite trade, profession by people connected by common interests, they commonly denote some working process.

Professional words name already-existing concepts and belong to non-literary layer of vocabulary.

Dialectal words is confined to a definite locality. In emotive prose they are meant to characterize the speaker as a person of' a certain locality, breeding, education, or to convey the atmosphere of local colouring. Vulgar words (vulgarisms) are swear words of an abusive character: E.g.: damn, bloody. Colloquial coinages are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language. They are not new words, but new meanings of existing words, they are not usually built by suffixes.

General notion of Stylistic Grammar. General Morphology and Stylistic Morphology.

General morphology treats morphemes and grammatical meanings expressed by them in language in general, without regard to their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology studies stylistic potential of group forms, meanings and categories. According to Screbnev: 2 general trends of styl-c significance: 1. synonymy (paradigmatic equivalence or interchangeability of different morphemes (dog-s, cow-s – ox-en phenomen-a, etc.); 2.variability of use of morphological “categorical forms” or of members of the opposition that constitute the grammatical category – “tense”, “person”, etc.

Language of Emotive prose.

ü The substyle of emotive prose has the same common features as have been pointed out for the belles-lettres style in general; but all these features are correlated differently in emotive prose.

ü The imagery is not so rich as it is in poetry; the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high as in poetry; the idiosyncrasy of the author is not so clearly discernible.

ü the combination of the literary variant or the language, both in words and syntax, with the colloquial, variant

ü there are always two forms of communication present—monologue (the writer's speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters).

ü The language of the writer conforms to the literary norms of the given period in the development of the English literary language.

ü elements from other styles as well. Thus we find elements of the newspaper style; the official style; the style of scientific prose.

Language of Poetry.

Features

its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances.

Both the syntactical and semantic aspects ,that is imposed by the rhythmic pattern, and the result is brevity of expression, epigram-like utterances, and fresh, unexpected imagery.

Syntactically this brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical peculiarities.

Rhythm and rhyme are immediately distinguishable properties of the poetic substyle provided they are wrought into compositional patterns.

Language of the Drama.

Drama - the language of plays mainly consists of dialogues. The author’s speech is almost entirely excluded, except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions. Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure. The language of a play has the following peculiarities:

it is stylized (it strives to retain the modus of literary English but don’t exclude the personal idiosyncrasies of the writer);

it presents the variety of spoken language;

it has redundancy of information caused by necessity to amplify the utterance;

Character’s utterances are longer than in the natural conversation,

The style of Official Documents.

The style of Official Documents is the most conservative. It is represented by the following substyles: 1. the language of business documents; 2. the language of legal documents; 3. that of diplomacy; 4. that of military documents.

The main aim - to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking, to reach agreement between two contracting parties.

Common Features

• the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions

• the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning,

• Words with emotive meaning are not to be found in the style of official documents.

• absence of any emotiveness;

Each of substyles makes use of special terms.

Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning.

In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols.

Scientific Prose Style.

The language of science is governed by the aim to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. It has 3 subdivisions: 1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose.

The peculiarities are:

• objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality.

• The language means tend to be objective, precise.

• The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences.

characteristic features:

1. the logical sequence of utterances;

2. the use of terms specific to each given branch of science, creation of new terms;

3. the use of quotations and references;

Publicistic Style.

The publicistic style became a separate style in the mid. of the 18th century and treats certain political, social, economic, cultural problems.

Substyles: a spoken variety-oratorical substyle. the essay, journalistic articles.

The function - to influence public opinion, to make accept the view point of the writer as only one correct.

Features • brevity of expression. • Combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, • Logical syntactical structure with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing (paragraph introduces

THE ORATORICAL STYLE of language is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems.

Features:

• Direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen), can be repeated in the course of the speech:

• The use of 2nd person pronoun (you),

• Synonymic repetition- to fill up the speech with details,

• The change of intonation to break the monotony

• Questions are most frequent because they promote closer contact with the audience.

AN ESSAY (16th c)is a series of personal and witty comments upon the subject, not a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter.

FEATURES: 1) brevity of expression, 2) the use of the 1st person singular , 3) the abundant use of emotive words, 5) the use of similes and sustained metaphors as one of the media for the cognitive process. Epigrams, paradoxes and aphorisms are common.

JOURNALISTIC ARTICLES -impersonal. Features depend upon the subject covered.

Scientific articles • Little words with emotive meaning, • Expanded system of connectives, • Terms

Political article

• Bookish words, neologisms, traditional word-combinations, parenthesis,

• Argumentation and emotional appeal through emphatic constructions

• More abstract words of logical meaning are used in them;

Graphic expressive means.

Rhyme and Rhythm. Meter and Line.

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. Identity and particularly similarity of sound combinations may be relative. We distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable. Incomplete rhymes present a greater variety. They can be divided into two main groups: vowel 'rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels.

According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza , certain models have crystallized:1. couplets —when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. 2. triple rhymes—aaa 3. cross rhymes—abab 4. framing or ring rhymes—abba. There is still another variety of rhyme which is called internal rhyme. The rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line.

In rhythm is regular succession of weak and strong stress. Rhythm is the main factor which brings order into the utterance. A rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech. The most observable rhythmical patterns in prose are based on the use of certain stylistic syntactical devices, namely, enumeration, repetition, parallel construction. Function - creat musical effect to a speech or a literary piece. Rhythm intensifies the emotions.

Metre is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists. English line is based on rhythmical arrangement and rhyme. Both rhythm and rhyme are objective qualities of language and exist outside verse. The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm making up classical verse are based, on:1) alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, 2) an equal number of syllables in the lines,3) a natural pause at the end of the line,4) identity of stanza pattern,5) established patterns of rhyming .

English verse originated from song. Classic English verse is called sуllabo-tonic. Two parameters are taken into account in defining the measure: the number of syllables and the distribution of stresses . There are five of the most recognizable English metrical patterns.: 1. Iambic(айэмбик) metre, in which the unstressed syllable is followed y a stressed one. 2. Trochaic(троукеик)metre, where the order is reversed, i.e. a stressed syllable is followed by one unstressed 3. Dactylic metre—one stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed 4. Amphibrachiс(эмфибрекик) metre—one stressed syllable is framed by two unstressed 5. Anapaestic(энепестик) metre—two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed.

These arrangements of qualitatively different syllables are the units of the metre, the repetition of which makes verse. One unit is called a foot. The number of feet in a line varies, but it has its limit; it rarely exceeds eight.

The stanza. Free verse and Accented verse

The stanza is the largest unit in verse. It is composed of a number of lines having a definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout the poem. The stanza is built up on definite principles with regard to the number of lines, the character of the metre and the rhyming pattern.

1) The heroic couplet—a stanza that consists of two iambic pentameters with the rhyming pattern aa.

2) The next model of stanza which once enjoyed popularity was the Spencerian stanza, named after Edmund Spencer, the 16th century poet who first used this type of stanza . It consists of nine lines, the first eight of which are iambic pentameters and the ninth is one foot longer, that is, an iambic hexameter. The rhyming scheme is ababbcbcc.

3) The stanza named оttava rima has also been popular in English poetry. It is composed of eight iambic pentameters, the rhyming scheme being abababcc. This type of stanza was borrowed from Italian poetry and was widely used by Philip Sidney and other poets of the 16th century.

4) A looser form of stanza is the ballad stanza. This is generally an alternation of iambic tetrameters with iambic dimeters (or trimeters), and the rhyming scheme is abcb.

5) One of the most popular stanzas is the sonnet. This it is a complete independent work of a definite literary genre. The English sonnet is composed of fourteen iambic pentameters with the following rhyming scheme: ababcdcdefefgg, that is, three quatrains with cross rhymes and a couplet at the end. The English sonnet was borrowed from Italian poetry, but on English soil it underwent structural and sometimes certain semantic changes.

Verse remains classical if it retains its metrical scheme. There are types of verse which are not classical. The one most popular is what is called "vers libre" which is the French term for free verse.. Free verse is recognized by lack of strictness in its rhythmical design. Here we shall use the term 'free verse' to refer only to those varieties of verse which are characterized by:

1) a combination of various metrical feet in the line;

2) absence of equilinearity and

3) stanzas of varying length. Rhyme, however, is generally retained.

Accented verse is a type of verse in which only the number of stresses in the line is taken into consideration.. Accented verse is tonic. In its extreme form the lines have no pattern of regular metrical feet nor fixed length, there is no notion of stanza, and there are no rhymes. It has become what is sometimes called poetic prose.

Lexical and syntactical features of verse

Among the lexical peculiarities of verse the first to be mentioned is imagery, which being the generic feature of the belles-lettres style assumes in poetry a compressed form: it is rich in associative power, frequent in occurrence and varied in methods and devices of materialization.

The image, as a purely linguistic notion, is something that must be decoded by the reader. So are the subtle inner relations between the parts of the utterance and between the utterances themselves.

An image can be decoded through a fine analysis of the meanings of the given word or word-combination. In decoding a given image, the dictionary meanings, the contextual meanings, the emotional colouring and, last but not least, the associations which are awakened by the image should all be called into play. The easier the images are decoded, the more intelligible the poetic utterance becomes to the reader. If the image is difficult to decode, then it follows that either the idea is not quite clear to the poet himself or the acquired experience of the reader is not sufficient to grasp the vague or remote associations hidden in the given image.

Images from a linguistic point of view are mostly built on metaphor, metonymy and simile. These are direct semantic ways of coining images. Images maybe divided into three categories: two concrete (visual, aural), and one abstract (relational).

Onomatopoeia and its stylistic value.

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or tools, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia:direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, bang, cuckoo. These words have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to guess what it is. Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding - dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested. Examples are: a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go at something. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo-writing". Onomatopoeia is often used in literature to create aural effects that mimic the visual thing being described.

Alliteration and assonance and their stylistic value.

Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound or diphthong in non-rhyming words. To qualify as assonance, the words must be close enough for the repetition of the sound to be noticeable. Assonance is a common literary technique used in poetry and prose, several proverbs. The assonance helps to make them more memorable in a subtler way than through rhyming words: Honesty is the best policy. Let the cat out of the bag. Function- to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme.

Metaphor, its types and functions.

The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The term 'metaphor' means transference of some quality from one object to another. A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other.

Metaphors can be classified according to genuine metaphors and trite metaphors, or dead metaphors.(floods of tears, a shadow of a smile) Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i. e. speech metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.

An extended metaphor, sometimes known as a prolonged or sustained metaphor, is a metaphor that an author develops over the course of many lines or even an entire work of literature.. Extended metaphors are complicated than a metaphor that an author only uses once in that extended metaphors more deeply explore the similarities between the original thing and the thing to which it is being compared.

Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose .Trite metaphors are generally used as еxрressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language. FUNCTION. Trite metaphor - They help the writer to enliven his work and even make the meaning more concrete. All metaphors gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry.

Metonymy and its stylistic functions.

Metonymy is based on a kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.Thus, the word crown may stand for 'king or queen', cup or glass for 'the drink it contains.Here also the interrelation between the dictionary and contextual meanings should stand out clearly and conspicuously. Metonymy used in language-in-action, i e. contextual metonуmy, is genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression, produced by a chance feature of the thing.

The types of relation which metonymy is based on: 1. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. 2. The container instead of the thing contained: 3. The relation of proximity: 4. The material instead of the thing made of it: 5. The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself,

Metonymy, being a means of building up imagery, generally concerns concrete objects, which are generalized. The process of generalization is easily carried out with the help of the definite article.

Function of Metonymy. Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. The use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness.metonymy is employed to add a poetic color to words to make them come to life.

Epithets and their stylistic value.

From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into:

1) simple 2) compound 3) reversed epithets.

From the point of view of the distribution of epithets in the sentence:

1) String of epithets (gives a many-sided depiction of the object) 2) Transferred epithet (ordinary logical attributes generally describing the state of a human being, but made to refer to an inanimate object).

Semantically according to I. Galperin.1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: dark forest; careful attention.

2) unassociated with the noun – epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.

Irony and its stylistic value.

Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with a special melody design, unless the context itself renders this intonation pattern unnecessary.

Types: verbal irony is a SD which occurs when a speaker says something contradictory to what he intends to, so it is an intentional product of the speaker. Situational irony is a SD that occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Dramatic irony is a kind of irony in a situation, which the writers frequently employ in their works. In dramatic irony, the audience is more aware of what is happening than a character. It creates intense suspense and humor and also emphasizes and conveys emotions and moods more effectively. Function: irony is used to express critical evaluation of the things spoken about. It also brings about some added meanings to a situation.

Zeugma and Pun, their stylistic value.

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred (Ex. The boys took their places and their books). The resulting effect is strongly humorous/ironical.

Function: Zeugma is used in English emotive prose and in poetry. Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when two meanings clash. By making the two meanings conspicuous. The basic function of zeugma is surprise.

Oxymoron and its stylistic functions.

Oxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meaning of the two clash, being opposite in sense (ex. speaking silence, cold fire, living death).

Oxymoron has one main structural model: adjeсtive + noun. It is in this structural model that the resistance of the two component parts to fusion into one unit manifests itself most strongly. In the adverb + adjective (ex. pleasantly ugly face) model the change of meaning in the first element, the adverb, is more rapid, resistance to the unifying process not being so strong.

Types: genuine (ex. proud humility, open secret). Trite (ex. awfully nice, horribly beautiful).

Function: to create new shades of meaning in existing words; to show the controversial nature of the phenomena described.

Interaction of logical and nominative meanings. Antonomasia and its stylistic value.

Antonomasiais a lexical SD in which a descriptive phrase replaces a person’s name, i.e. in which the nominal meaning of a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning acquires the new-nominal — component.

Types:

1) a proper noun is used for a common noun (it is a metonymic antonomasia). It is observed in cases when a personal name stands for something connected with the bearer of that name who once really existed. It describes a person’s features and qualities through those commonly associated with the name of some historical figure or some mythological, religious, literary character. Its stylistic function is to give concrete expression to abstract things

2) a common noun is used instead of a proper noun (it is a metaphoric antonomasia). Often it is used to create a humorous effect. They are usually spelled with hyphens between their components to stress their close syntactical and semantic relations.

3) 'speaking names' — names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. The stylistic function is to characterize a person through his name.

Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations or phrases. Common nouns used in the second type of antonomasia are in most cases abstract, though there are instances of concrete ones being used too.

Interjections and exclamatory words

Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings. Interjections are words with emotive meanings. Interjections have no sentence meaning.

Types:According to their derivational pattern:Primary interjectionsare generally devoid of any logical meaning. Derivative interjections may retain a modicum of logical meaning, though this is always suppressed by the volume of emotive meaning. Semantically, interjections are as a rule divided into two groups: emotional interjections and imperative interjections. Structurally, English interjections may be divided into two types: simple and composite. Simple interjections have the structure of a separate word. Composite interjections are forms combining several words.

It must be noted here that some adjectives, nouns and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections. With proper intonation and with an adequate pause such as follows an interjection, these words may acquire a strong emotional colouring and are equal in force to interjections.

Function: to attach a definite modal nuance to the utterance. The context usually suggests the shade of meaning contained in a given interjection (joy, sadness, disgust, horror, irony, sarcasm).

Simile and its stylistic value.

In the English language there is a long list of hackneyed similes pointing out the analogy between the various qualities, states or actions of a human being and the animals supposed to be the bearers of the given quality: Function: Similes are an important tool that makes language more creative, descriptive, and entertaining.

Hyperbole and its stylistic value.

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exaggeration is carried to an illogical degree.

Functions

In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an amusing effect. However, in literature by using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a contrast is developed.

The Cliché. Proverbs and sayings

Cliche is an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. It refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. Clichés are usually used informal ceremonies, festivals, courts , where they are not considered as clichés. They are found in official documents. Function: to stimulate behavior (cognition, emotion, volition, action), while it avoids reflection on meanings.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language and collected in dictionaries. There have typical features: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and/or alliteration. But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies in the content-form of the utterance, which is mainly characterized by its brevity. The proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of 2 meanings: the face-value meaning and an extended meaning drawn from the context. Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually didactic and image bearing (function). Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.

Epigrams. Quotations. Allusions.

Epigrams are witty, pointed statements, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originator (function). They always have a literary-bookish air about them that distinguishes them from proverbs. The necessary requirements of the epigram: it is brief, generalizing, witty and can be expanded in its appli¬cation. The most characteristic feature of an epigram is that the sentence gets accepted as a word-combination and often becomes part of the language as a whole.

A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas, dashes, italics or other graphical means. The stylistic value of a quotation lies mainly in the fact that it com¬prises two meanings: the primary meaning, the one which it has in its original surroundings, and the applicative meaning, i.e. the one which it acquires in the new context. Quotations are used as a SD with the aim of expanding the meaning of the sentence quoted and setting two meanings one against the other, thus modifying the original meaning. In this quality they are used mostly in the belles-lettres style.

An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to on the part of the reader or listener. As a rule no indication of the source is given. An allusion has certain important semantic peculiarities, in that the meaning of the word should be regarded as a form for the new meaning. Function: the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them.

Decomposition of set expressions

The stylistic device of decomposition of fused set phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings which make up the component parts of the set phrases, the meaning of which is understood only from the combination as a whole. In other words, it makes each word of the combination acquire its literal meaning which, of course, in many cases leads to the realization of an absurdity. Here is an example of this device as employed by Dickens: Mind! I don't mean to say that I know of my own knowledge, what there is particularly dead about a door-nail. The fusion 'as dead as a door-nail', which simply means completely dead, is decomposed by being used in a different structural pattern. This causes the violation of the generally recognized meaning of the combination which has grown into a mere emotional intensifier.

Parenthesis and its stylistic functions.

Parenthesis is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes.”

In fact, parenthesis sometimes embodies a considerable volume of predicativeness, thus giving the utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring.

Aposiopesis (Break-in-the-Narrative) its stylistic functions.

Aposiopesis can be generally defined as "A stopping short for rhetorical effect." ( Golperin) This term which in Greek means “silence”, denotes intentional abstention from continuing the utterance to the end.(Skrebnev)

Functions

We should distinguish aposiopesis as a stylistic device and as a peculiarity of a colloquial language.

1) In spoken, colloquial language (not a device): • unwillingness to proceed; • the idea can be understood by the implication embodied in what has been said; • uncertainty as to what should be said.

2) In written variety, a stylistic device:

• imitate spontaneous oral speech. • the implication of a warning and a threat • to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions.

Syntactical structures

• complex sentences, in particular in conditional sentences, the 1st-clause being given in full and the second part only implied.

Graphical markers dashes and dots are used.

The pause after the break is generally charged with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance.

Asyndeton, polysyndeton and their stylistic functions.

Asyndeton is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language.

Asyndeton means «absence of conjunctions". Asyndetic connection of sentences and parts of sentences is based on the lexical meanings of the unites combined. The stylistic function of asyndeton is similar to that of ellipsis: brevity, acceleration of the tempo, colloquial character.

Polysyndeton is the stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives before each component part.

The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical. The conjunctions and other connectives, being generally unstressed elements, when placed before each meaningful member, will cause the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables—the essential requirement of rhythm in verse.

Polysyndeton has a disintegrating function. It generally combines homogeneous elements of thought into one whole resembling enumeration. But, unlike enumeration, which integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole, polysyndeton causes each member of a string of facts to stand out conspicuously. That is why we say that polysyndeton has a disintegrating function. Enumeration shows things united; polysyndeton shows them isolated.

Polysyndeton has also the function of expressing sequence.

Enumeration and its stylistic value.

Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in the same position, are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity.

Enumeration, as an SD, may be conventionally called a sporadic semantic field, inasmuch as many cases of enumeration have no continuous existence in their manifestation as semantic fields do. The grouping of sometimes absolutely heterogeneous notions occurs only in isolated instances to meet some peculiar purport of the writer.

Climax and Anticlimax, their stylistic functions.

Climax is an arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance.

A gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and quantitative.

Logical сIimax based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. This relative importance may be evaluated both objectively and subjectively, the author’s attitude towards the objects or phenomena in question being disclosed.

Emotional climax is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning. Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences, more rarely in longer syntactical units. This is natural. Emotional charge cannot hold long.

Quantitative climax is an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts.

Indispensable constituents of climax are:

a) the distributional constituent; b) the syntactical pattern c) the connotative constituent.

Anticlimax refers to a figure of speech in which statements gradually descend in order of importance. Unlike climax, anticlimax is the arrangement of a series of words, phrases, or clauses in order of decreasing importance.

Litotes and its stylistic value.

Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation, though the positive effect is weakened and some lack of the speaker’s confidence in his statement is implied.

Structure

Negation (particle “not”, without) plus noun or adjective negative in semantics (or with negative affixes)

Function

• Convey additional connotation. The function of litotes has much in common with that of understatement - both weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of litotes lies in its specific "double negative" structure and in its weakening only the positive evaluation.

• convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling.

• In personages' speech it is used for conveying a reserved statement or ironical attitude to the object.

• In scientific prose style it is used to convey carefulness in the expression of thought.

• In poetry it is sometimes used to suggest that language fails to convey the poet's feelings and so he uses negations to express the inexpressible.

Convergence of stylistic devices.

Convergence is an aggregate of stylistic devices partaking in one stylistic function. The components could be diverse.

Stylistic function

A stylistic function is generally recognized as an expressive potential of interacting linguistic means in a text which conveys emotive, expressive, evaluative and aesthetic information, rather than logical content of the text. Specific stylistic functions are further divided into: 1) a descriptive function, 2) a character logical function, 3) an emotion-intensifying function, 4) an evaluative characteristic function, 5) a reality-intensifying function, 6) an intonation-rhythmical function, 7) a device-foregrounding function, 8) an advertising or intriguing function, and 9) an argumentative-rhetorical function.

Represented Speech, its types and stylistic value.

Represented speech –representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken; whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words, writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression.

Represented speech exists in two varieties: 1) uttered represented speech and 2) unuttered or inner represented speech

Uttered-the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language. Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change.

Uttered represented speech in newspaper communications is different from that in the belles-lettres style. In the former, it is generally used to quote the words of speakers in Parliament or at public meetings.

Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, expresses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language by the character That is why it abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constructions.

Morphological pattern

tense forms are shifted to the past; the third person personal pronouns replace the first and second. The interrogative word-order is maintained as in direct speech.

Rhetorical questions, Questions-in-the-Narrative and their stylistic value.

A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. Unlike rhetorical questions Q-in-the N do not contain statements. But being answered by one who knows the answer, they assume a semi-exclamatory nature.

Function

• give the impression of a pravite talk between the writer and the reader.

In Oratorical style:

• to chain the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering.

• give the listeners time to absorb what has been said, and prepare for the next point.

Question-in-the-narrative may also remain unanswered.

So, traditional psychological nature of a question implies answer on behalf of the interlocutor. In the Q-in-the-N we observe deviation from the norm, which has a certain volume of emotional charger This deviation is much more clearly apparent in rhetorical questions.

Functions

• Make the statement sound more categorical • Transfer some emotive meaning • Challenge • Irony

Periphrasis and Euphemism. Their stylistic value.

Periphrasis – a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. The essence of the device is that it is decipherable only in context. Periphrasis as a SD is a new, genuine nomination of an object, a process which realizes the power of language to coin new names for objects by disclosing some quality of the object, even though it may be transitory, and making it alone represent the object.

Stylistic periphrasis can be divided into:1. Logical - based on one of the inherent properties of a thing 2. Figurative - based either on metaphor or metonymy Function: It aims at pointing to one of the insignificant or barely noticeable features or properties of the given object, and intensifies this property by naming the object by the property. Periphrasis makes the reader perceive the new appellation against the background of the one existing in the language code and the twofold simultaneous perception secures the stylistic effect.

Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.

Function of Euphemism

Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues.

Types

Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical and 4) parliamentary.

Conventional euphemisms--employed in conformity to social usages are best illustrated by the parliamentary codes of expression.

political euphemisms, the aim of which is to mislead public opinion and to express what is unpleasant in a more delicate manner.

Periphrastic and euphemistic expressions were characteristic of certain literary trends and even produced a term periphrastic style. But it soon gave way to a more straightforward way of describing things.

Euphemisms, words or phrases that substitute for provocative or emotionally charged terms, are employed for various reasons:

1 Abstraction: Some euphemisms serve to distance people from unpleasant or embarrassing truths.

2 Indirection: A euphemism may replace an explicit description of an action.

3 Litotes: Sometimes, euphemism occurs in the form of this rhetorical device in which the gravity or force of an idea is softened or minimized by a double negative

Antithesis and its stylistic functions.

In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view, it may be necessary not to find points of resemblance or association between it and some other thing or phenomenon, but to find points of sharp contrast.

Stylistic opposition, which is given a special name, the term antithesis , is of a different linguistic nature: it is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs.

A line of demarcation must be drawn between logical opposition and stylistic opposition. Any opposition will be based on the contrasting features of two objects. These contrasting features are represented in pairs of words which we call antonyms, provided that all the properties of the two objects in question may be set one against another.

It is not only the semantic aspect which explains the linguistic nature of antithesis, the structural pattern also plays an important role. Antithesis is generally moulded in parallel construction. The antagonistic features of the two objects or phenomena are more easily perceived when they stand out in similar structures.

Function to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view to stress the heterogeneity of the described phenomenon,

to show that the objest is a dialectical unity oftwo (or more) opposing features.

Meiosis and its stylistic value.

Repetition: its types (parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis, framing, syntactic tautology) and stylistic functions.

Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer.

The stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance.

Types of Repetition

• Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses.

• Epiphora: Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause.

• Framing the initial parts of a syntactical unit, in most cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it

• Anadiplosis the last word or phrase of one part of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part, thus hooking the two parts together.

• chain -repetition. use the linking device several times in one utterance.

• “root-repetition” In root-repetition it is not the same words that are repeated but the same root.

• synonymical repetition. This is the repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.

Functions

• is to intensify the utterance.

• Repetition may also stress monotony of action.

Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa.

There are different variants of the structural design of chiasmus.

• The chiasmus appearing in a complex sentence where the second part has an opposite arrangement.

• The chiasmus in a sentence expressing semantically the relation of cause and effect.

• The chiasmus serves to increase the effect of climax.

Functions:

• Helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterance.

• Serves to increase the effect of climax

• To break the monotomy

• Brings in some new shade of meaning/ additional emphasis on some portion of the second part

• adds rhythm to the utterance

Detached Constructions.

The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. The structural patterns of detached constructions which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position

Functions

• emphasizing the word or phrase:

• giving additional characteristics or explanatory information:

In the English language detached constructions are generally used

in the belles-lettres prose style and mainly with words that have some explanatory function, for example:

A detached construction can be separated by means of comma or parenthesis which embodies a considerable volume of predicativeness, thus giving the utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring.

Suspense and its stylistic value.

Suspence is a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. Thus the reader’s attention is held and his interest kept up.

Sentences of this type are called periodic sentences or periods. Their function is to create suspense, to keep the reader in a state of uncertainty and expectation.

Suspense and climax sometimes go together. In this case all the information contained in the series of statement-clauses preceding the solution-statement are arranged in the order of gradation.

This device is effective in more than one way, but the main purpose is to prepare the reader for the only logical conclusion of the utterance. It is a psychological effect that is aimed at in particular. ( helps to create the desired atmosphere of expectation and emotional tension which goes with it)

The term “suspense” is also used in literary criticism to denote an expectant uncertainty about the outcome of the plot. To hold the reader in suspense means to keep the final solution just out of sight. Technically, suspense is organized with the help of embedded clauses separating the predicate from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence (utterance).

+Practical Task

1. An extract for a comprehensive analysis.

2. Glossary of stylistic terms.

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@Кр.docx

Semasiology is a branch of linguistics whose related to the theory of signs and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.

Stylistics is the branch of linguistics which studies the principles, the effect of choice and usage of different language elements in rendering thoughts and emotions under different conditions of communication.

Connotative meaning consist of 4 components: evaluative, emotive, expressive, stylistic.

Boy neutral

Дежавю barbarisms

stylistic devices metaphor, metonomy, zeugma, anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis, chiasmus, irony, epithet, oxymoron, antonomasia, simile, periphrasis, hyperbole

Alliteration is a deliberate use of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, usually at the beginning of words.

Graphic means: italic, bold type, hyphenation, multiplication, capitalization

Knightly archaic

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by things, by people and animals.

Special literary vocabulary: terms, poetic, archaic (archaic, obsolescent, obsolete), barbarisms (foreign), literary coinages (nonce-words)

Special Colloquial vocabulary: slang, jargonisms, professionalisms, dialectal words, vulgarisms, colloquial coinages.

Terms are directly connected with the concepts they denote. They belong to the scientific prose style.

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language.

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@ответ семинар 1 стилистика.docx

Varieties of Language.

Neutral. Common literary and common colloquial vocabulary.

General Morphology and Stylistic Morphology

Special Colloquial vocabulary: slang, jargonisms, professionalisms, dialectal words, vulgarisms, colloquial coinages.

The article and its stylistic potential.

The article may be a very expressive element of narration. The indefinite article may be charged with a negative evaluative connotation and diminish the importance of someone's personality, make it sound insignificant. The definite article used with a proper name may become a powerful expressive means to emphasize the person's good or bad qualities. The definite article may serve as an intensifier of the epithet used in the character's description.

The definite article may contribute to the devices of gradation and repetition or help create the rhythm of the narration. The alternation of the articles now slows down now quickens the tempo. When a noun is used with more than one adjective there is no necessity to repeat the article but its presence draws attention to the word after it. The indefinite article adds some degree of uncertainty of the speaker as to the tinge of the colour. The norm for titles is the zero or definite article, but in the given example the article indicates that the story is not unique.

The adjective and its stylistic functions

The only grammatical category of the English adjective today is that of (degrees of) comparison. Comparison is only the property of qualitative and quantitative adjectives, but not of relative ones.

When adjectives that are not normally used in a comparative or a superlative degree are used with this category they are charged with a strong expressive power.

In the following example the unexpected superlative degree forms lend the sentence a certain rhythm and make it even more expressive.

The commercial functional style makes a wide use of the violation of grammatical norms to captivate the reader's attention.

The use of comparative or superlative forms with other parts of speech may also convey a humorous colouring.

Special literary vocabulary

Problems of stylistic research.

Type of stylistic research and branches are distinguished: lingua stylistics and literary stylistics.

The difference proceeds from different points of analysis: Linguistic stylistics studies functional styles, the linguistic nature of expressive means, their systematic character and functions.

Literary stylistics focuses on composition of a work of art, various literary genres, the writer's outlook.

Stylistics of decoding can be presented in the following way:

1) from encoding point of view: sender (epoch, political, social, aesthetic view of the author) message - receiver: speaker — book - reader;

2) from decoding: reader – book- speaker.

Decoding stylistics combines the 2 methods in an attempt to interpret a work of art with a minimum loss of its purport and message.

Comparative Stylistics is connected with the contrastive study of more than one language.

Functional stylistics is branch of stylistics which investigates, researches, studies functional styles.

All types of stylistics consider the same source of material for stylistic analysis:
sounds, words phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts.

So any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level-forming branches that include:
Stylistic Phonetics, Stylistic Lexicology and Stylistic Grammar.

Any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level forming branches, that include: Stylistic Phonetics

General considerations of stylistic classification of the vocabulary

Types of stylistic research and branches of stylistics.

There are: 1) Literary. 2) Linguistic-stylistics

Both study the common ground of:

1) the literary language from the point of view of its variability;

2) the idiolect (individual speech) of a writer;

3) poetic speech that has its own specific laws.

Lingua-stylistics studies

• Functional styles (in their development and current state).

• The linguistic nature of the expressive means of the language, their systematic character and their functions.

Literary stylistics is focused on

• The composition of a work of art.

• Various literary genres.

• The writer’s outlook.

Comparative stylistics

Comparative stylistics is connected with the contrastive study of more than one language.

Decoding stylistics

Each act of speech has the performer, or sender of speech and the recipient. The former does the act of encoding and the latter the act of decoding the information.

If we analyse the text from the author’s (encoding) point of view we should consider the epoch, the historical situation, the personal political, social and aesthetic views of the author.

But from the reader we shall have to disregard this background knowledge and get the maximum information from the text itself (its vocabulary, composition, sentence arrangement, etc.).

Decoding stylistics is an attempt to harmoniously combine the two methods of stylistic research and enable the scholar to interpret a work of art with a minimum loss of its purport and message.

Functional stylistics

Functional stylistics is a branch of lingua-stylistics that investigates functional styles, that is special sublanguages or varieties of the national language such as scientific, colloquial, business, publicist and so on.

Any kind of stylistic research will be based on the level-forming branches that include:

Stylistic lexicology

Stylistic Phonetics (or Phonostylistics) is engaged in the study of style-forming phonetic features of the text. It describes the prosodic features of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in different types of speech (colloquial or oratory or recital).

Stylistic grammar:

a) Stylistic Morphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of specific grammatical forms and categories.

b) Stylistic Syntax Stylistic syntax has to do with the expressive order of words, types of syntactic links, figures of speech

Phraseology and its stylistic functions

phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word units.

Stylistics studies the expressive potential of linguistic unites (phonemes, words, clauses) or their stylistic function. Stylistics is mostly in the study of connotative meanings.

The semantic structure or the meaning of a word ruftly consists of grammatical meaning (noun, verb, adjective), lexical meaning ( the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system)

Lexical meaning can subdivided into denotative meaning (linked to the logical or nominative meaning) and connotative meaning ( is only connected with extra-linguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication and the participants of communication)

Connotative meaning consist of 4 components: evaluative, emotive, expressive, stylistic.

A word is always characterized by its denotative meaning. The 4 components may presented at once or a different combinations.

Emotive connotations express feelings and emotions. (дописать) Emotions like enjoy, angry, surprised are more short lived. Feelings employ(дописать) are more respect, dignity. The emotive component meaning may be (дописать) or at hearant. It is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations from words describing or naming emotions or feelings like angry or fear (дописать) whose denotative meanings are emotions.

The noun and its stylistic potential: The Categories of Case and Number.’

The stylistic power of a noun is closely linked to the grammatical categories this part of speech possesses: number and case. The use of a singular noun instead of an appropriate plural form creates a generalized, elevated effect often bordering on symbolization. The use of plural instead of singular makes the description more powerful and large-scale. The plural form may stress the repeated character of a state or action:

The plural form of an abstract noun makes it more expressive, brings about aesthetic semantic growth: The category of case which is typical of the proper nouns, since it denotes possession becomes a mark of personification. With the help of the pronoun you the writer may establish an intimate tie between himself and the reader, tacitly implying that the latter sides with him.

The verb and its stylistic properties: The Categories of Tense, Mood, Person.

All deviant usages of its tense, voice and aspect forms have strong stylistic connotations and play an important role in creating a metaphorical meaning. The verbal category of tense • 'historical present' that makes the description very pictorial, almost visible. to make the reader the on-looker of the situation in order he/she to feel the empathy. • The Imperative form and the Present Indefinite referred to the future.

• Continuous forms are frequently used to convey the emotional state of the speaker, his mood, his intentions or feelings. • Verbs of physical and mental perception in continuous forms- a highly emphatic structure: • The use of the auxiliary do in affirmative sentences is a notable emphatic device: The category of mood The imperative mood expresses the meaning of command, order, request, warning, advice, wish, threat.

The synthetic form is revived in emotive prose and poetry. •In this respect the category of mood resembles the category of voice: it shows the speaker’s subjective interpretation of the event as either actual or imaginary. The category of person shows whether the action is performed by the speaker or someone or something other . The sentences containing the infinitive have no explicit doer of the action, that’s why they acquire a generalized universal character.

Meter and line

Free verse and Accented verse

1) a combination of various metrical feet in the line;

2) absence of equilinearity and

3) stanzas of varying length. Rhyme, however, is generally retained.

The stanza

Graphons

It is intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word or word combination used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act. Graphon indicates irregularities or carelessness of pronunciation, supplies information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition. Graphon is referred to all changes of the type (italics, CapiTaliSation), spacing of graphemes and of lines

Onomatopoeia

Emphatic Intonation

Emphatic Intonation – a type of intonation which is emotional and powerful. It serves to intensify the meaning of the whole sentence or one or more words in the sentence. The English language distinguishes intensity emphasis and contrast emphasis. Intensity emphasis is emphasizing of the whole sentence or one or more words in it in order to intensify the meaning. The meaning of the whole sentence is intensified by increasing the stress. Contrast emphasis is emphasizing of one or more words in the sentence in order to express contrast. Components of Emphatic Intonation : melody, tones, pitch level, sentence stress timbre, word stress.

Rhythm

Rhyme

Alliteration, assonance, aesthetic evaluation of sounds

Aesthetic evaluation of sounds. A phoneme can have a strong associative power. The sounds themselves, though they have no extra lingual meaning, possess a kind of expressive meaning and hence stylistic value. The essence of stylistic value of the sound consists in its paradigmatic correlation with phonetically analogous units which have positive or negative meaning. B, p, k, g, d, t – abrupt. Sh – unpleasant. M, n, l – melodic. Bl – disgust.

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@ОТВЕТЫ СЕМИНАРЫ.docx

In language studies there are two very clearly-marked tendencies that the student should never lose sight of, particularly when dealing with the problem of word-combination. They are 1) the analytical tendency, which seeks to dissever one component from another and 2) the synthetic tendency which seeks to integrate the parts of the combination into a stable unit. These two tendencies are treated in different ways in lexicology and stylistics. In lexicology the parts of a stable lexical unit may be separated in order to make a scientific investigation of the character of the combination and to analyse the components. In stylistics we analyse the component parts in order to get at some communicative effect sought by the writer. It is this communicative effect and the means employed to achieve it that Jie within the domain of stylistics.

Decomposition of Set Phrases.

General Considerations

Inversion is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter.

Fixed word order is characteristic of the English language, the predominant structure being:

S (Subject) – P (Predicate) – O (Object)

The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met

in both English prose and English poetry.

1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies (postposition of the attribute). This model is often used when there is more than one attribute, for example:

“With fingers weary and worn..." (Thomas Hood)

3.a) The predicative is placed before the subject, as in

“A good generous prayer it was.” (Mark Twain)

b) the predicative stands before the link-verb and both are placedbefore the subject, as in

“Rude am I in my speech...” (Shakespeare)

4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence, as In:

“Eagerly I wished the morrow.” (Poe)

“A tone of most extraordinary comparison Miss Tox said it in.”

(Dickens)

5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject, as in:

“In went Mr. Pickwick.” (Dickens)

Function of Inversion

The main function of inversion in prose or poetry is to help the writers achieve stylistic effects like laying an emphasis on a particular point or changing the focus of the readers from a particular point. In poetry, inversions are regularly used to create rhythm, meter or rhyming scheme in the lines.

The enumeration here is heterogeneous; the legal terms placed in a string with such words as ‘friend’ and ‘mourner’ result in a kind of clash, a thing typical of any stylistic device. Here there is a clash between terminological vocabulary and common neutral words. In addition there is a clash of concepts: ‘friend’ and ‘mourner’ by force of enumeration are equal in significance to the business office of ‘executor’, ‘administrator’, etc. and also to that of ‘legatee’.

Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession

Types

• Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses

• Complete parallel arrangement maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences.

Parallel construction is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices.

Function

a. intensify the utterance

b. adds rhythm and balance to the utterance

c. show the state of mind of the speaker, he’s under the stress of strong emotion

e. Stress monotony of action, suggest fatigue, despair, doom

f. Emotive function

g. Carries the idea of semantic equality and significance of the parts or emphasizes diversity and contrast of ideas.

Gap-s e n t e n e e l i n k (GSL) is a term, used for a peculiar type of connection of sentences . The connection is not immediately apparent and it requires a certain mental effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, in other words, to bridge the semantic gap.

Consequently, GSL is a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader’s perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, but not worded.

The gap-sentence link is generally indicated by and or but. There is no asyndetic GSL, inasmuch as connection by asyndeton can be carried out only by semantic ties easily and immediately perceived.

While maintaining the unity of the utterance syntactically the author leaves the interpretation of the link between the two sentences to the mind of the reader. It is the imaginative mind only that can decode a message expressed by a stylistic device.

The gap-sentence link has various functions. It may serve to signal the introduction of inner represented speech; it may be used to indicate a subjective evaluation of the facts; it may introduce an effect resulting from a cause which has already had verbal expression. In all these functions GSL displays an unexpected coupling of ideas. Even the causeand effect relations, logical as they are, when embodied in GSL structures are not so obvious.

The gap-sentence link as a stylistic device is based on the peculiarities of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech.

E l l i p s i s Is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the situation. But this typical feature of the spoken language assumes a new quality when used in the written language. It becomes a stylistic device inasmuch as it supplies suprasegmental information. An elliptical sentence in direct intercourse is not a stylistic device. It is simply a norm of the spoken language.

Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence. It would perhaps be adequate to call sentences lacking certain members “incomplete sentences", leaving the term e l l i p s i s to specify structures where we recognize a digression from the traditional literary sentence structure.

While in colloquial speech ellipsis is the natural outcome of extra-lingual conditions, in other varieties of speech it is used with certain stylistic aims in view. Thus it imparts a kind of emotional tension to the author's narration. Sometimes the omission of sub¬jects contribute to the acceleration of the tempo of speech.

The most characteristic feature of the written variety of language is amplification, which by its very nature is opposite to ellipsis. Amplification generally demands expansion of the ideas with as full and as exact relations between the parts of the utterance as possible. Ellipsis, on the contrary, being the property of colloquial language, does not express what can easily be supplied by the situation. This is perhaps the reason that elliptical sentences are rarely used as stylistic devices. Sometimes the omission of a link-verb adds emotional colouring and makes the sentence sound more emphatic,

belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three sub-styles are: '

1. The language of poetry, or simply verse.

2. Emotive pгоse, or the language of fiction.

3. Т'he language of the drama.

Common features:

"aesthetico-cognitive" function which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader. (it has something in common with scientific style, but the aim of science- to prove, of belles-letter - to suggest interpretations of phenomena by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer.)

.Linguistic common features

1. Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

(When an abstract notion is by the force of the mind represented through a concrete object, an image is the result. Imagery may be built on the interrelation of two abstract notions or two concrete objects or an abstract and a concrete one.)

2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environ¬ment.

3. A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

The basic newspaper features: 1) brief news items; 2) advertisements and announcements; 3) headlines;

BRIEF ITEMS: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary.

Specific features are:

a) special political and economic terms; b) newspaper cliches; с) abbreviations; d) neologisms.e) voc-ry devoid of emotional colouring,

Grammatical parameters :

1. complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;

2. verbal constructions (inf, ger, partic.);

3. syntactical complexes ( nominative with the infinitive to avoid mentioning the sourse of information);

4. attributive noun groups;

5. specific word order (fixed)

HEADLINE-the title given to a news item or an article The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news is to follow about. They show the reporter's or the paper's attitude to the facts reported or commented on, thus also performing the function of instructing the reader. English headlines are short and catching, they "compact the gist of news stories into a few eye-snaring words.

Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns:

1. full declarative sentences;

2. interrogative sentences;

3. nominative sentences;

4. elliptical sentences;

5.phrases with verbals;

6. headlines including direct speech.

ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS. The function of advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader.

There are 2 basic types of ads:

• classified -various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name

• non-classified(separate)-, their variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all be pointed out.

Features

• ellipsis,

• brevity,

• absence of articles.

• Essentially neutral voc-ry, sometimes emotional colouring to attract attention( in personal section)

As for the non-classified advertisements, the reader's attention is attracted by every possible means: typographical, graphical and stylistic, both lexical and syntactical. Here there is no call for brevity

“

LANGUAGE OF POETRY

Intensification of a certain feature

In the third group of stylistic devices, which we now come to, we find that one of the qualities of the object in question is made to sound essential. This is an entirely different principle from that on which the second group is based, that of interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously materialized in the context. In this third group the quality picked out may be seemingly unimportant, and it is frequently transitory, but for a special reason it is elevated to the greatest importance and made into a telling feature.

The term supra-phrasal unit (SPU) (1) is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence. It generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with). Thus the sentence: "Guy glanced at his wife's untouched plate", if taken out of the context, will be perceived as a part of a larger span of utterance where the situation will be made clear and the purport of verbal expression more complete.

Here is the complete SPU.

Guy glanced at his wife's untouched plate.

"If you've finished, we might stroll down. I think you ought to be starting."

She did not answer. She rose from the table. She went into her room to see that nothing had been forgotten and then side by side with him walked down the steps.

So a supra-phrasal unitmay be defined as a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity.Any SPU

will lose its unity if it suffers breaking.

One of the principle on which the singling out of an SPU can be maintained is utterance. Utterance denotes a certain span of speech (language-in-action) in which we may observe coherence, interdependence of the elements, one definite idea, the purport of the writer.

The purport is the aim that the writer sets before himself, which is to make the desired impact on the reader. So the aim of any utterance is a carefully thought-out impact. Syntactical units are connected to achieve the desired effect and it is often by the manner they are connected that the desired effect is secured.

3.3 A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. As a linguistic category the paragraph is a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties.

Paragraph structure is not always built on logical principles alone. In the building of paragraphs in newspaper style, other requirements are taken into consideration, for instance, psychological principles.

Paragraph building in the style of official documents is mainly governed by the particular conventional forms of documents.

Paragraph structure in the belles-lettres and publicistic styles is strongly affected by the purport of the author.

The length of a paragraph normally varies from eight to twelve sentences. The longer the paragraph is, the more difficult it is to fol¬low the purport of the writer. In newspaper style, however, most para¬graphs consist of one or perhaps two or three sentences.

there is the classify paragraphs from the point of view of the logical sequence of the sentences:

2) on the inductive or deductive principle;

3) from cause to effect, or from effect to cause;

4) on contrast, or comparison

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@печать (2).docx

Convergence is an aggregate of stylistic devices partaking in one stylistic function. The components could be diverse. The most important thing – the function they perform.

For example, the extract from H.Melville’s “Mobi- Dick” where the ocean is described ¹⁰ .

“And heaved and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as if its vast tides were a conscience”.“

Stylistic function

“Her face was not unhandsome” (Kucharenro) a specific form of meiosis ( Skrebnev)

Structure

Negation (particle “not”, without) plus noun or adjectivenegative in semantics (or with negative affixes)

Function

· convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. E. g. It's not a bad thing

· In scientific prose style it is used to convey carefulness in the expression of thought, e.g. // is not uncommon for grammarians to distinguish between these phenomena. ("Language")

In fact, parenthesis sometimes embodies a considerable volume of predicativeness, thus giving the utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring.

- it is stylized (it strives to retain the modus of literary English but don’t exclude the personal idiosyncrasies of the writer);

- it presents the variety of spoken language;

- it has redundancy(избыточность) of information caused by necessity to amplify(усилить) the utterance;

- monologue is never interrupted by exclamatory words by a person to whom this speech is addressed;

- Character’s utterances are longer than in the natural conversation,

- two or more questions can be asked in monological utterance in drama what is untypical for an ordinary conversation,

-no digression from the main topic in the dialogues of drama, unless it is the purport of the writer.

LANGUAGE OF POETRY (остальное в вопросах 17,18,19)

Features

ü its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances.

ü Both the syntactical and semantic aspects ,that is imposed by the rhythmic pattern, and the result is brevity of expression, epigram-like utterances, and fresh, unexpected imagery.

ü Syntactically this brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical peculiarities.

ü Rhythm and rhyme are immediately distinguishable properties of the poetic substyle provided they are wrought into compositional patterns.

Скачать материал

Скачать материал "Материал по подготовке к экзамену по стилистике"

Как учитель может зарабатывать на Инфоурок?

Выбранный для просмотра документ Стилистика@SEP@печать.docx

Graphons

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or tools, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia:direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, bang, cuckoo. These words have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to guess what it is. Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding - dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested. Examples are: a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go at something. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo-writing". Onomatopoeia is often used in literature to create aural effects that mimic the visual thing being described.

Emphatic Intonation

Rhythm

In rhythm is regular succession of weak and strong stress. Rhythm is the main factor which brings order into the utterance. A rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech. The most observable rhythmical patterns in prose are based on the use of certain stylistic syntactical devices, namely, enumeration, repetition, parallel construction.Function - creat musical effect to a speech or a literary piece. Rhythm intensifies the emotions.

Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. Identity and particularly similarity of sound combinations may be relative. We distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable. Incomplete rhymes present a greater variety. They can be divided into two main groups: vowel 'rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different, as in flesh— fresh—press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth—forth; tale—tool— Treble—trouble; flung—long.

According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza , certain models have crystallized, for instance:1. couplets —when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. 2. triple rhymes—aaa 3. cross rhymes—abab 4. framing or ring rhymes—abba. There is still another variety of rhyme which is called internal rhyme. The rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line.

Rhyme may be said to possess two seemingly contradictory functions: discovering on the one hand, and consolidating.

Alliteration, assonance, aesthetic evaluation of sounds

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words. Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. However, certain sounds, if repeated, may produce an effect that can be specified. For example, the sound [m] is frequently used to give a somnolent (усыпляющий) effectIn Old English poetry alliteration was one of the basic principles of verse It is frequently used as a well-tested means not only in verse but in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings, as, for example, in the following: Tit for tat; blind as a bat;or in the titles of books: "Sense and Sensibility" (Jane Austin). Function - to create melodic effect in poetry and prose.