HISTORY OF EDUCATION
The first major milestone in the history of education
occurred in prehistoric times when man invented language. Language enabled man
to communicate more precisely than he could by signs and gestures. But early
man had only a spoken language. He had no system of writing or numbering and no
schools.
Young people in prehistoric societies were educated through
apprenticeship, imitation and rituals. Through apprenticeship a young man
learned, for example, how to build a shelter by working with an older,
experienced master builder. Through imitation, young people acquired the
language and customs of their parents and other adults in their society.
Through the performance of rituals, they learned about the meaning of life and
the ties that bound them to their group. The rituals consisted of dancing or
other activities. They were performed at times of emotional stress, such as
death, warfare, or drought. The rituals usually involved myths, which dealt
with such things as the group's history and its gods and heroes.
Today, in all societies, young people still learn through
apprenticeship, imitation and ritual.But as a society grows
increasingly complicated, teachers and schools take on more and more
responsibility for educating the young.
The Beginning of Formal Education
About 3000 ВС, the
Sumerians, who lived in Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and the Egyptians each
invented a system of writing. Both systems included a method of writing numbers
as well as language. The invention of writing was the second major milestone in
the history of education. It made possible the beginning of schools as we know
them today.
Before man developed writing, teachers had to repeat orally what
was to be learned until the young had memorized it. A child could thus learn
only what his teacher already knew, and had memorized. But by teaching the
child to read, a teacher could make available the knowledge of many men, not
only his own, yet reading and writing could not be learned while the child
served as an apprentice, imitated the behaviour of his elders, or
took part in rituals. In addition, the first writing systems, which were a kind
of picture writing, were awkward* and hard to learn. As a result, special
schools arose in which teachers taught reading, writing, and calculation.
Sumerian and Egyptian Education
Shortly after 3000 ВС,
both0 the Sumerians and the Egyptians established schools to teach boys the
newly invented arts of reading and writing. The schools were taught by temple
priests. Only exceptionally talented boys could attend the schools. Girls were
not allowed to attend school, but some girls learned reading and writing in
their homes.
A boy's training, which lasted from about the age of 5 to 17, was
strict and monotonous. He learned to write by copying the same literary
selections again and again. He learned arithmetic by copying business accounts.
Boys who completed their education formed a separate social class called
"scribes." Scribes were hired for any task that required a knowledge
of reading, writing, or arithmetic.
Other Middle Eastern Education
Civilization spread from Sumer and Egypt to the eastern shores of
the Mediterranean Sea. Certain tribes in this region each spoke one of the
closely related Semitic languages. Between about 1500 ВС and
1000 ВС, these tribes developed the world's first alphabet and so gave
education another valuable tool. Alphabetic systems make writing easier than
picture systems because they require far fewer symbols.
Certain Hebrew Semitic tribes developed a remarkably democratic
educational system. Other educational systems had been designed mainly for the
sons of upper-class families. But the Hebrews required boys of every social
class to attend school. The Hebrew schools were religious -schools conducted by
priests called scribes. They taught boys to read the sacred writings of the
Hebrew people, which were collected in a volume called the Tarah. Hebrew
girls did not attend school but were taught at home by their mothers.
Ancient Greek Education
Greek civilization flourished from about 700 ВС to
about 330 ВС. During this period, the Greeks made the greatest educational
advance of ancient times. In fact, Western education today is based on the
ancient Greek model.
Ancient Greece was divided into independent city-states. The
educational system of each city-state aimed to produce good citizens. Athens
and Sparta, two of the most powerful city-states, had different ideals of
citizenship. In Sparta, a citizen was judged largely by his political and
military service. The government controlled education. Boys received physical
and military training, but few learned to read and write. In Athens, unlike
Sparta, a citizen was judged more by the quality of his mind. But Athenian
citizens were also expected to develop their bodies and to serve the state.
Athens made the greatest educational advances of any Greek
city-state. But Athenian education was far from democratic. Education was
limited to the sons of Athenian citizens. Only about a fifth of the Athenians
were citizens. Most of the rest were slaves, who were not considered worthy of
an education.
Athenian boys started their education at about age 6. But they did
not go to schools as we think of schools today. A trusted family slave simply
took them from teacher to teacher, each of whom specialized in a certain
subject or certain related subjects. Boys studied reading, writing, arithmetic,
music, dancing and gymnastics. As the boys advanced, they memorized the words
of Homer and other Greek poets. Boys continued their elementary education until
they were about 15 years old. From about ages 16 to 20, they attended a
government sponsored gymnasium. Gymnasiums trained young men to become
citizen-soldiers. They emphasized such sports as running and wrestling and
taught civic duty and the art of war. Students held discussions to improve
their reasoning and speaking ability.
Some Athenian gymnasiums became centres of advanced
learning. By the 400s ВС,
advanced learning in Athens consisted of philosophy and rhetoric. Philosophy
included the study of logic, mathematics, morals, and science. Rhetoric
included the study of government, history, and public speaking.
During the 400s and 300s ВС,
Athens produced such great philosophers and teachers as Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates.
About 387 ВС Plato founded a school of philosophy that became known as
the Academy.
Some scholars believe the Academy was the Western world's
first institution of higher learning. Aristotle founded a similar school called
the Lyceum about 330 ВС.
Most young Athenian women received no formal education. The Greeks
believed girls could learn all they needed to know from their mothers – that
is, how to prepare food, make clothing, and care for infants. However, some
women belonged to religious organizations through which they developed skills
in music, poetry, and dancing.
Ancient Roman Education
By 100 ВС, the
Romans had built the most extensive educational system of that time. Their
system was patterned after** that of ancient Athens. But unlike the Athenians,
the Romans provided schooling for girls as well as boys. The children of
wealthy citizens were taught by a ludus(elementary-school teacher) from
about the age of 7 to 10. They learned to read and write both Greek and their
native language, Latin. Girls received only an elementary education. Boys from
about 10 to 15 years old attended a secondary school run by
a grammaticus (teacher of grammar). In secondary school, they
continued their study of Greek and Latin grammar and literature. The Romans also
established institutions of higher learning. These institutions were schools of
rhetoric, which prepared young men for careers in law and government.
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