Данное учебное пособие предназначено для студентов строительных специальностей, технических ССУЗов и составлено в соответствии с требованиями учебной программы по иностранным языкам.

Основной целью учебного пособия является подготовка студентов к чтению, пониманию аутентичных текстов по специальности. В основе пособия лежат как методически обработанные тексты из англоязычных источников, так и тексты, являющиеся творческой работой авторов. Тематика текстов охватывает основные строительные понятия, историю предмета и развития строительного дела, современные строительные технологии, а также проблемы маркетинга и менеджмента в строительстве. Отдельные тексты содержат информацию страноведческой и культурологической направленности и носят обучающий и познавательный характер. Некоторые уроки снабжены высказываниями людей, имеющих огромный практический опыт в бизнесе, что также способствует, на взгляд авторов, формированию делового и финансового менталитета обучаемых (Financial Intelligence \ Quotient), и является немаловажным для развития российской молодежи в современных рыночных условиях. Высказывания от дельных известных людей, служат основой для развития умения говорить на заданную тему и способствуют закреплению лексики урока и использованию ее в других жизненных ситуациях.

Учебное пособие состоит из двух основных частей: практической и теоретической, дополнительных текстов с заданиями, англо-русского и русско-английского словаря.

Каждый урок пособия имеет определенную структуру: лексическая часть включает основной текст, словарь и комментарий для активного усвоения лексики текста, лексические и после текстовые упражнения различного типа.

Кроме того, урок содержит комплекс грамматических упражнений, направленных на введение и закрепление нового и повторение пройденного грамматического материала. К каждому уроку дается один или два дополнительных текста, тематически связанных с основным.

При составлении текстов и упражнений в учебном пособии уделено большое внимание повторяемости лексических и грамматических явлений и использован принцип постепенного нарастания трудностей, что позволяет лучше усваивать материал.

Учебное пособие также включает задания, ориентированные на формирование навыков монологической речи. Выбор тематики продиктован требованиями вузовской программы.

В "Фонетическом приложении" даются краткие правила чтения наиболее трудных для произношения букв и буквосочетаний английского языка в виде таблиц.

В "Грамматическом приложении" более полно раскрыты те разделы английской грамматики, которые не изучаются в рамках школьной программы, тогда как грамматическим явлениям, изучаемым в школе, уделено меньше внимания.

Англо-русский и русско-английский словари содержат терминологию по строительной специальности, а также лексику, встречающуюся в текстах учебного пособия.

Каждое аудиторное занятие рассчитано на 2 часа, примерно столько же требуется на подготовку к нему дома и около одного часа на выполнение письменной работы. На прохождение каждого урока требуется 2 аудиторных часа (которые распределяются поровну на каждую часть). Всего основная часть учебного пособия рассчитана на 56 аудиторных часов. Время для работы по практике языка отводится на самостоятельную работу с текстами для домашнего чтения, по газетному материалу и на другие виды работ, выходящие за пределы данного учебника.

Lesson one

Тема урока: My future profession

Грамматика: Особенности употребления настоящего

завершенного, настоящего завершено - длительного и

прошедшего простого времени

Text 1

My future profession –materials science and engineering

One of the major aspects of Civil engineering is materials science. Material engineering deals with ceramics such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.Materials engineering also consists of protection and prevention like paints and finishes. Alloying is another aspect of materials engineering, combining two types of metals to produce a stronger metal. It incorporates elements ofapplied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis. Materials science also deals with fundamental properties and characteristics of materials.

Coastal engineering

Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defense against flooding and erosion.

The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land.

Construction engineering

Eiffel Tower under construction between 1887 and 1889

Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and closely monitoring prices of necessary supplies.

Earthquake engineering

Earthquake engineering covers ability of various structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their particular location.

Earthquake-proof and massive pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza

Earthquake engineering is a sub discipline of the broader category of Structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:

Snapshot from shake-table video [3] of testing base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building model

· Understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground.

· Foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes.

· Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building codes.

Environmental engineering

A filter bed, a part of sewage treatment

Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process.

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.

READ FOR FUN

1. Listen to the text. Explain the meanings of the word

PAINT

One day a painter, looking out of the window, saw an old country man going by and thought the man would make a good subject for a picture. So he sent his servant to tell the man that her master would like to paint him. The old man hesitated and asked what the painter would pay him. She said he would pay him a pound. The old man still hesitated. "Come on", she said.

"It's an easy way to earn a pound". "Oh, I know that," he answered. "I was only wondering how I should get the paint off afterwards".

Exercise 1. How to correctly use Present Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous and Past Indefinite Tenses

1. How often have you been to London?

2. I have read this book three times.

3. Joy has been in London since the middle of July.

4. They have been living in Leeds for several years.

5. — How long have you been learning English?

— I have been learning English since last October.

6. — Have you ever been to Belgrade?

— Yes, I've been there once. I went there in 1996.

Exercise 2. SPEAKING PRACTICE. Discuss the topic "My Future Profession" with your partner using such words as

ambition, occupation, job, to make one's choice, to succeed in, qualified, skilled, many roads are opened, to make up one's mind, to apply for, to serve the interest of, one's future speciality, to take a special living, to commit an error, the duty of... is to'..., to start a career, to start training, to be one's chief interest, to have a try, to give a plenty of opportunities, social importance, one's final choice, to be well aware of the fact that:.., a matter of future, prestige and wealth, to discuss professional matters, to encourage, motivation, etc.

Exercise 3. How do you see your future profession? Please answer the following questions:

1) What kind of work are you interested in?

1. well paid

2. interesting

3. large and famous company

4. quiet

5. industry which hаs a future

6. prestigious

7. not to sit the whole day in the office

8. to travel a lot

2) What position would you like to have?

a) to manage people — manager

b) to work for someone else — an employee

с) to be your own boss self-employed, businessman

a) be responsible for everything — top manager, director

b) to work for the state — state employee

Exercise 4. Please discuss with your group advantages and disadvantages of your future profession.

Do you think that engineering profession is prestigious?

Is it well-paid? How difficult is it to find a good work in this field?

Прямоугольник: скругленные углы: ГРАММАТИКА

Лекция 1

Завершенные времена: Present Perfect; Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive); Present Perfect Passive Voice.

Если мы говорим о действии, которое уже произошло, но результат связан с настоящим моментом, то мы употребляем Present Perfect Tense. Связь с настоящим нам может показать наречие «только – что» (just).

Сравним два предложения:

2. I have just bought a suit.

Я только что купил костюм

В данном случае тоже говориться о действии, которое произошло в прошлом, но результат связан с настоящим моментом, т. к. оно произошло только что (just).

1. I bought a suit yesterday.

Я купил костюм вчера.

Здесь есть точный указатель времени

yesterday - вчера, который нам показывает, что действие уже завершилось в прошлом, т.е. это Past Simple – простое прошедшее время

Наречие just можно опустить, но мы все равно будем подразумевать, что действие произошло только что. Время Present Perfect часто употребляется в диалогах:

- Where have you been?

- I’ve been in the library.

- Где ты был? (имеется в виду «Где ты был только что?»)

- Where have you just been?

- Где ты был только что?

have/has/ 3л., ед. ч. + V₃

Наречие just в данном случае можно опустить, н6о если мы его употребляем, то употребляться оно должно после вспомогательного глагола have: I have just swum in the swimming. Образуется Present Perfect при помощи вспомогательного глагола have (has + V₃ (причастие II), V + ed у правильных глаголов или третья форма глагола).

Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive). Мы употребляем это время, когда действие началось в прошлом и до сих пор длиться. Т.е. если мы говорим о процессе, который длиться в течение некоторого времени. Например: Я учусь в академии год – I have been studding at the Academy for a years.

Образуется Present Perfect Continuous при помощи have/has been + V₄(четвертая форма глагола (причастие I)

have/has been + V₄

Длительность времени могут показывать два предлога since (с), for (в течение):

Since 1998 – с 1998 года (процесс длиться с 1998 г.);

For 5 years – 5 лет (т.е. в течение 5 лет происходит действие).

I have been going in for sport since 1983. Переводим на русский в настоящем времени.

Present Perfect Passive. Страдательный залог в Present Perfect. Действие направленно на предмет, он не сам совершает это действие. Действие началось в прошлом и до сих пор длиться, т.е. есть связь с настоящим временем.

have been + V₃

Образуется Present Perfect Passive при помощи have been + V₃– причастие II (Pr. II)

Олимпийские игры проводят с древних времен – The Olympic Games have been held since ancient times. Здесь не важно, кто выполняет действие, главное само действие, что Олимпийские игры проводятся.

Если мы хотим уточнить, кто выполняет это действие, то мы употребляем предлог - by. Люди играют в футбол уже довольно долго - Football has been played for a long time.

Lesson two

Тема урока: CIVIL ENGINEERING

Грамматика: Герундий и Инфинитив

Text 2

Civil Engineering

The term "engineering" is a modern one. The New Marriam-Webster Dictionary gives the explanation of the word "engineering" as the practical application of scientific and mathematical principles. Nowadays the term "engineering" means, as a rule, the art of designing, constructing, or using engines. But this word is now applied *in a more extended sense.¹ It is applied also to the art of executing such works as the objects of civil and military architecture, in which engines or other mechanical appliances are used.

Engineering is divided into many branches. The most important of them are: civil, mechanical, electrical, nuclear, mining, military, marine, and sanitary engineering.

While the definition "civil engineering "dates back only two centuries, the profession of civil engineer is as old as civilized life. It started developing with the rise of ancient Rome. In order to understand clearly what civil engineering constitutes nowadays, let us consider briefly the development of different branches of engineering. Some form of building and utilization of the materials and forces of nature have always been necessary for the people from the prehistoric times. The people had to protect themselves against the elements and sustain themselves in the conflict with nature.

First the word "civil engineering"* was used to distinguish the work of the engineer with a non-military purpose from that of a military engineer. And up to about the middle of the 18^th century there were two main branches of engineering — civil and military.

*The former included all those branches of the constructive art not directly connected with military operations and the constructions of fortifications, while the latter², military engineering, concerned itself with the applications of science and the utilization of building materials in the art of war.

But as time went on, the art of civil engineering was enriched with new achievements of science.

With the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and later there came a remarkable series of mechanical inventions, great discoveries in electrical science and atomic energy. It led to differentiation of mechanical, electrical, nuclear engineering, etc.

It is a well-known fact that with the invention of the steam engine and the growth of factories a number of civil engineers became interested in the practical application of the science of mechanics and thermodynamics to the design of machines. They separated themselves from civil engineering, and were called "mechanical engineers".

With the development of the science of electricity, there appeared another branch of the engineering — electrical engineering. It is divided now into two main branches: communications engineering and power engineering.

In the middle of the 20* century there appeared some other new branches of engineering — nuclear engineering and space engineering. The former is based on atomic physics, the latter — on the achievements of modern science and engineering.

At present there are hundreds of subdivisions of engineering, but they all, at one time or another, branched off from civil engineering.

The term "civil engineering" has two distinct meanings. In the widest and oldest sense it includes all non-military branches of engineering as it did two centuries ago. But in its narrower, and at the present day more correct sense, civil engineering includes mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, metallurgical, and mining engineering.

It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines includingenvironmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, geophysics, geodesy, control engineering, structural engineering, biomechanics, nanotechnology,transportation engineering, earth science, atmospheric sciences, forensic engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.

Here are some fields of civil engineering:

1. Housing, industrial, and agricultural construction.

2. Structural engineering comprises the construction of all fixed structures with their foundations.

3. The construction of highways and city streets and pavements.

4. The construction of railroads.

5. The construction of harbours and canals.

6. Hydraulic engineering which includes the construction of dams and power plants.

The above enumeration will make clear the vast extent of the field of civil engineering.

2. A few explanations to the text

1... in a more extended sense—в более широком смысле

2. Theformer..., whilethelatter... — первый (имеетсяввидуиз двух упомянутых)..., тогда как последний... (издвухупомянутых)

3. Here are some fields of civil engineering. — Вот некоторые области строительства.

3. Key vocabulary / expressions

appliance [a'plaians] —n приспособление, прибор

apply[ə'plai] —v обращаться (for —за помощью, справкой и т.д. to — к кому-либо)

branch [bra:ntj] —ветвь; филиал; отрасль

concern [kən'sə:n] (with)—v" касаться, относиться; интересовать

conflict with nature ['neitja] — противоречитьприроде, бороться с природой

deal (with) —v иметь дело с чём-л., кем-л.

divide (into) — v делить, разделять

distinguish (from)—v отличать

execute [ig'zekju:t] — v выполнять

harbour ['ha:ba] — n гавань

lead (to)—vвести (к)

protect oneself against — защищатьсяотчего-либо.

sustain [sas'tein]—vподдерживать; выдерживать

4. Phonetic drill. Mind the pronunciation of the following words with the italicized letters.

[u:] include, fluent, blue, revolution; rule, crude, virulent, ruble / but construct [kan'strAkt], structure ['strAktJb]

[u:] should, would, could, group, route, soup, rouble

[о:] hydraulic, authority, automobile, Australia, August, launch/ but gauge [geid3], laugh [la:f], aunt[a:nt], mauve[mouv]

Exercise 5. Please discuss with your group career paths of your future profession.

Text 3

Professional engineering discipline

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, geophysics, geodesy, control engineering, structural enginereing, biomechanics, nanotechnology,transportation engineering, earth science, atmospheric sciences, forensic engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably. The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700–2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,^]) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads.

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.

Прямоугольник: скругленные углы: ГРАММАТИКА The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded byRensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.

Лекция 2

Инфинитив (The Infinitive)

Инфинитив - это неличная форма глагола, сочетающая в себе свойства глагола и имени существительного. Инфинитив обычно употребляется с частицей tо.

Be sure to come. - Обязательно приходи.

I’m so glad to have met you. – Я так рад, что познакомился с тобой.

В отличие от неопределенной формы глагола в русском языке, английский инфинитив непереходных глаголов имеет категорию аспекта, а переходных глаголов - аспекта и залога.

Tаблица 1- Образование инфинитивов переходных и непереходных глаголов

форма инфинитива	непереходный глагол	переходный глагол
форма инфинитива	непереходный глагол	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Indefinite	to swim - плавать	to discuss – обсуждать	to be discussed – обсуждаться
Continuous	to be swimming- плыть	to be discussing – обсуждать
Perfect	to have swum – проплыть	to have discussed – обсудить	to have been discussed - быть обсужденным
Perfect Continuous	to have been swimming – плавать (и плавать)	to have been discus-sing – обсуждать (и обсудить)

3начение временных форм инфинитива

Indefinite Infinitive обозначает действие (или состояние), одновременное с действием (или состоянием), выраженным глаголом в личной форме.

I’m very glad to see you. - Я очень рад тебя видеть.

I’m sorry to be late. - Извините, что я опоздал.

I don’t like to be interrupted. - Я не люблю, когда меня перебивают.

Continuous Infinitive употребляется для выражения действия, длящегося в момент/период, к которому относится другое действие, выраженное глаголом в личной форме:

The weather seems to be changing. - Кажется, погода меняется.

It was a real pleasure to be swim- - Было так приятно плавать в море

ming in the sea on such a hot day. в такой жаркий лень.

Реrfect Infinitive обозначает действие/состояние, предшествующее действию/состоянию, выраженному личной формой глагола:

I’m glad to have bought this book. - Я рад, что купил эту книгу.

It's awfully nice of you to have - Как любезно с вашей стороны

come. что вы пришли.

После глаголов tо hope, to mean, to expect в Past Indefinite и модальных глаголов shоиld, соuld, ought (to), to be (to) употребление Perfect Infinitive обозначает, что действие (намерение, обязательство) не было выполнено:

I hoped to have come in time. - Я надеялся прийти вовремя.

He could have written the - Он мог бы написать сочинение

composition much better. намного лучше.

Shе was to have come yesterday. - Она должна была приехать вчера.

Perfect Continuous Infinitive обозначает действие/состояние, которое началось до начала действия/состояния, выраженного личной формой глагола, и совершилось к началу действия, выраженного личной формой глагола:

She turned out to have been - Оказалось, что она с утра

cleaning the house since morning. убирается в доме.

Формы инфинитива действительного залога (Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous)описывают действие кaк совершаемое кем-то или чем-то.

Формы инфинитива страдательного залога описывают действие как совершаемое над кем-либо или чем-либо.

This work must be done today. - Эта работа должна быть

закончена сегодня.

I’m afraid it can’t be helped. - Боюсь, ничего нельзя сделать.

Инфинитив, как и личные формы глагола, может определяться наречием.

I саn’t speak so loudly. - Я не могу говорить так громко.

You must come back as soon as - Вы должны вернуться как можно

possible. скорее.

Инфинитив переходных глаголов, как и личные формы глагола, может принимать прямое, косвенное и предложное дополнение:

Tаблица 2 - Инфинитив инфинитивов переходных

Я буду рад составить вам компанию.	I’ll be glad to keep you company.	company	косвенное дополнение
Я буду рад составить вам компанию.	I’ll be glad to keep you company.	you	прямое дополнение
Я не собираюсь вас ждать.	I’m not going to wait for you.	for you	предложное дополнение

Функции инфинитива в предложении

1) Чаще всего инфинитив выполняет в предложении роль части составного глагольного сказуемого в сочетании с модальными глаголами и с такими глаголами, как to begin, to start, to continue, to end, to stop, to finish, to want, to intend, to decide и т.п., выражающими начало, продолжение или конец действия, или отношение лица, выраженного подлежащим, к действию, выраженному инфинитивом:

We can actually begin the - Теперь мы действительно

experiment можем начать опыт.

Мy watch began to gain. - Мои часы начали спешить.

2) Именная часть составного сказуемого:

To prolong this discussion is to - Продолжать это обсуждение

waste time. значит попусту тратить время.

3) Подлежащее:

To smoke is bad for health. - Курить вредно для здоровья.

Инфинитив-подлежащее обычно ставится после сказуемого, а предложение в таких случаях начинается с вводного it: It is bad for health to smoke.

Наиболее типичными конструкциями подобного рода являются:

а) It is (was, will be, has been, would be, must be) better (good, bad, easy, difficult, necessary, nice, hard) + инфинитив. Например:

It is impossible to understand what - Невозможно понять, что ты

you say. говоришь.

Will it be hard to pass this exam? - Будет трудно сдать этот экзамен?

б) It is (was, etc.) kind (wrong, wise, unwise, clever, rude, nice, good, bad, bold, careless) of smb. + инфинитив.

Например:

It was wrong of you to say that. - Зpя ты это сказал.

It was nice of you to help me. - Было очень мило с твоей стороны

помочь мне.

4) Дополнение после переходных глаголов to help, to like, to assist, to prefer, to ask, to forget, to beg, to promise, to recommend и др.:

He forgot to wind the watch when - Он забыл завести часы, когда

he went to bed. спать.

5) Часть сложнoго дополнения:

Еverybody watched him walk across - Все смотрели, как он шел

the garden. через сад.

6) Определение:

He was the first to come here. - Он первым пришел сюда.

Please give me some water to drink. - Пожалуйста, дайте попить воды.

Инфинитив, определяющий существительное, часто приобретает модальное значение и переводится на русский язык определительным придаточным предложением с модальным глагольным сказуемым, выражающим возможность или долженствование.

Иногда инфинитив переводится глаголом в будущем времени:

We intended to camp in one of the - Мы предполагали заночевать в

inlets to be found round that tiny одном из заливчиков, которые

shore. можно найти у этого островка.

He is the man to do it. - Он как раз тот человек, который сделает это.

7) Обстоятельство цели:

Wе came tо thе station to see them - Мы пришли на вокзал, чтобы

off. проводить их.

8) Обстоятельство следствия:

At that time I was too young to - В то время я был слишком молод,

think of such things. чтобы думать о таких вещах.

9) В сочетании с относительными местоимениями и наречиями what, which, whоm, how,when, whеre, а также с союзами whether, if инфинитив образует группы, которые могут употребляться в функции разных членов предложения:

Tаблица 3 – Инфинитив и функции разных членов предложения

I don’t know what to do.	Я не знаю, что делать.	дополнение
The question is where to go.	Вопрос в том, куда пойти.	предикатив
*What to do next* was our main problem.	Что делать дальше – вот в чем заключалась наша главная проблема.	подлежащее

Употребление частицы to с инфинитивом

Инфинитив, как правило, употребляется с частицей to, которая является его признаком.

What are you going tо do now? - Что ты собираешься теперь делать?

What’s tо be dоne? - Что нужно сделать?

I’m sorrу to have done it. - Я сожалею, что сделал это.

В разговорной речи, особенно в ответах нa вопросы, инфинитив после частицы tо нередко опускается во избежание повторения:

Why didn’t yоu help him? - Почему вы ему не помогли?

- Нe didn’t ask me to. - Он не просил меня (помочь).

Если в предложении употребляются два инфинитива, соединенные союзом and или or, частица to перед вторым инфинитивом обычно опускается:

We wanted to find the boy and - Мы хотели найти мальчика и

persuade him to return home. уговорить его вернуться домой.

Инфинитив с частицей to употребляется после глаголов to be и to have, используемых в качестве модальных глаголов, и после модального глагола оиght:

I have to be at home at 5. - Я должен быть дома к 5.

You’ll have to obey me. - Тебе придется меня слушаться.

You ought to be more attentive. - Тебе следует быть более

внимательным.

Инфинитив употребляется без частицы to в следующих случаях:

1) в сочетании со вспомогательными и модальными глаголами, кроме упомянутых выше:

It must be six o’clock. - Сейчас, наверно, шесть часов.

I cannot swim yet. - Я еще не умею плавать.

Do you know the new timetable? - Ты знаешь новое расписание?

2) в составе сложного дополнения после глаголов to see, to hear, to watch, to observe, to notice, to feel, to let, to make, to get, to have, to help:

I heard her play the piano. - Я слышал, как она играла на

пианино.

Who let you take the jam? - Кто позволил тебе взять варенье?

Однако если эти глаголы стоят в страдательном залоге, инфинитив после них будет употребляться с частицей tо:

He was heard to lock the door. - Слышали, как он запирал дверь.

He was made to do it. - Его заставили сделать это.

3) в обороте с I won’t have

I won’t have this cat play on my - Я не потерплю, чтобы этот кот

bed! играл на моей постели!

4) в эллиптических вопросах с why:

Why not go there? - Почему бы тебе нe пойти туда?

5) после выражений had better, would rather, would sooner:

He said he would rather stay at - Он сказал, что предпочел бы

home. остаться дома.

George said we had better get the - Джордж сказал, что нам лучше

canvas first. сначала натянуть парусину.

Лекция 3

Герундий (The Gerund)

Герундий - неличная форма глагола, сочетающая свойства глагола и существительного. В этом отношении герундий сходен с инфинитивом, но отличается от него тем, что передает оттенок процесса действия. Подобной неличной формы в русском языке нет.

Герундий обладает следующими свойствами существительного:

1. Герундий может быть в предложении подлежащим, частью сказуемого, прямым дополнением.

2. Герундию может предшествовать предлог, и в этом случае герундий может быть в предложении предложным дополнением, определением или обстоятельством.

3. Герундий может иметь в качестве определения существительное в притяжательном или общем падеже или притяжательное местоимение.

Герундий обладает следующими свойствами глагола:

1. Герундий выражает залог.

2. Герундий выражает соотнесенность во времени, т. е. одновременность или предшествование времени действия, выраженного глаголом в личной форме.

3. Герундий может иметь прямое дополнение.

4. Герундий может определяться обстоятельством, выраженным наречием.

Примечание. В различных употреблениях герундия может выступать его именные и глагольные свойства одновременно:

The energy of a body is its сараcity for doing work. Энергия тела - это его спобность совершать работу.

В приведенном примере герундии doing выполняет функцию определения существительного capacity (именное свойство герундия и в то же время имеет прямое дополнение work (глагольное свойство герундия).

Tаблица 4 – Образование герундия

формы герундия	непереходные глаголы	переходные глаголы
формы герундия	Active Voice	Active Voice	Passive Voice
неопределенный	coming	asking	being asked
перфектный	having come	having asked	having been asked

Вce формы герундия совпадают с формами причастия (The Present Participle, The Perfect Participle). Однако причастие и герундий являются разными формами глагола, как по значению, так и по синтаксическим функциям.

Tаблица 5 – Синтаксические функции

The boy, reciting a poem, forgot several lines.	Мальчик, декламирующий стихотворение, забыл несколько строк.	Present Participle
He likes reciting poems.	Он любит декламировать cтихи.	Indefinite Gerund
Having passed the exams, we went on a hike.	Сдав экзамены, мы пошли в поход.	Perfect Participle
He was proud of having passed the exams very well.	Он гордился тем, что сдал экзамены очень хорошо.	Perfect Gerund

Значение форм герундия

The Indefinite Gerund обычно обозначает действие, одновременное с действием глагола в личной форме:

I couldn’t help laughing when I saw - Я не мог не засмеяться, увидев

her in that strange dress. ее в таком странном платье.

He went out without saying a word. - Oн вышел, не говоря ни слова.

После глаголов to remember, to forget, to excuse to forgive, to thank, а также с предлогами аftеr, on/ upon The Indefinite Gerund обозначает действие, предшествующее действию глагола в личной форме, т.е. имеет значение The Perfect Gerund:

Thank you for your coming. - Спасибо вам за то, что вы пришли.

I don’t remember seeing him before. - Я не помню, чтобы я видел его раньше.

On entering the room we found -Войдя в комнату, мы обнаружили

it empty., что она пуста.

The Perfect Gerund выражает действие, предшествующее действию глагола в личной форме:

Ann was proud of having got an - Энн гордилась тем, что получила

excellent mark at the exam. отличную оценку на экзамене.

The Passive Gerund (Indefinite and Perfect) обозначает действие, производимое над лицом или предметом:

I insist on being told everything. - Я настаиваю на том, чтобы мне

все рассказали.

He was proud of having been - Он гордился тем, что его избрали

elected chаirmаn. председателем.

Синтаксические свойства герундия

К синтаксическим свойствам герундия относятся следующие:

1) глагольные свойства:

а) герундий переходных глаголов может иметь прямое, косвенное и предложное дополнение:

Tаблица 6 – Синтаксическим свойствам герундия

Вы не могли бы передать мне хлеба?	Would you mind pas-sing me the bread?	me	косвенное дополнение
Вы не могли бы передать мне хлеба?	Would you mind pas-sing me the bread?	the bread	прямое дополнение
Я люблю читать подобные книги	I like reading books of that sort.	books	прямое дополнение
Вы не против, если я с ним поговорю?	Do you mind my speaking to him?	to him	предложное дополнение

б) герундий может определяться наречием:

Тhе child burst out crying bitterly. - Ребенок горько расплакался.

2) именные свойства:

а) герундий, так же как и существительное, образует предложные сочетания, чаще всего с предлогами of, for, in, without, before, after, on, upon, by, about, to:

What’s the use of arguing? - Какой толк в споре?

I’m tired of waiting. - Я устала ждать.

Тhаnk you for helping me. - Спасибо за помощь.

б) герундий может иметь определение, выраженное притяжательным местоимением или существительным в притяжательном падеже:

What do you say to his joining us?-Что вы скажете насчет того, что он присоединится к нам?

Jаnе’s coming is always a pleasure. - Приход Джейн - всегда удовольствие.

в) герундий может выполнять в предложении функции, свойственные существительному: подлежащего, дополнения и именной части составного сказуемого.

На русский язык герундий переводится по-разному: отглагольным существительным, инфинитивом или придаточным предложением в зависимости от функции герундия в предложении и контекста:

Тhе floor in this room needs painting. - Пол в этой комнате нуждается в покраске.

Stор talking. - Прекратите разговаривать.

Everybody laughed on hearing his answer - Все рассмеялись, услышав его ответ.

I remember hearing this story before. - Я помню, что уже слышал этот рассказ.

Функции герундия в предложении

Герундий употребляется в предложении в следующих функциях:

1) прямого дополнения к глаголам to аvоid, tо enjоy, to finish, tо givе uр, to go on, сan’t hеlp, to keep (on), to mind (в вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях), tо mention, to put off, to stop, to want (нуждаться):

You must go on working. - Ты должен продолжать paботать.

My brother gave up smoking a year ago - Мой брат бросил курить год назад.

Avoid making mistakes like these. - Избегайте совершать подобные ошибки.

Следующие глаголы могут принимать в качестве дополнения как герундий, так и инфинитив: tо continue, to dislike, to begin, to like, to forget, to intend, to hate, to love, to learn, to need, to mean (намереваться), to prefer, to propose, to start, to try, to remember:

We intend to go to Moscow - Летом мы намереваемся поехать

going in summer. в Москву.

Nick proposed to start - Ник предложил выехать

starting

the next morning. на следующее утро.

2) предложного дополнения к глаголам to think of, to complain of, to dream of, to begin by, to finish by, to end by, to mean by, to thank for, to go in for, to excuse for, to use for, to prepare for, to help in, to fail in, to succeed in, to look forward to, to save from, to keep from, to stop from, to insist on, to look like, to feel like:

Wе are thinking of going on a hike - Мы подумываем о том, не

during our summer holidays. сходить ли в поход на летних каникулах.

What do you mean by saying that? - Что ты хочешь этим сказать?

Не succeeded in solving the problem. - Ему удалось решить проблему.

В разговорной речи предложный герундий (с предлогом about) часто yпoтpeбляeтcя в вопросах типа What/ how about + герундий:

What about going to the concert? - Как насчет того, чтобы сходить на концерт?

How about having some tea? - Как насчет чаю?

3) предложного дополнения к прилагательным и причастиям, обычно после глагола to be: fond of, sure оf, proud of, tired of, ashamed of, afraid of, good at, bad at, clever at, pleased at, surprised at, ready for, sorry for, grateful for, famous for, good for, right in, used to:

Nick is very good at painting. - Ник очень хорошо рисует.

Are you sure of winning the - Ты уверен, что победишь на

сomреtition? конкурсе?

4) беспредложного дополнения к прилагательным worth(while)и busy:

This book is worth reading. - Эту книгу стоит почитать.

It’s not worthwhile quarrelling. - He стоит ссориться.

Soon she was busy eating. - Вскоре она занялась едой.

5) постпозитивного предложного определения (чаще всего с предлогами оn, in, for и др.) I don’t see any use in going there

- Не вижу никакого смысла в том, чтобы идти туда.

Is there any hope of getting tickets? - Есть ли какая-нибудь надежда на билеты?

I’ve had little time for reading this - У меня было мало времени для

week. чтения на этой неделе.

6) The Indefinite Gerund, как и существительное, может употребляться в качестве препозитивного определения к другому существительному.

Такие сочетания близки к сложным существительным и трудноотличимы от них. Например: a swimming race - соревнование по плаванию (герундий); а wаlking-stick – трость (существительное);

7) подлежащего:

Walking always gives me an appetite. - Ходьба всегда поднимает у меня аппетит.

Learning rules without examples is of - Учить правила без примеров

little use. нe очень полезно.

Герундий-подлежащее часто вводится местоимением it:

It was a pleasure meeting you. - Было приятно с вами познакомиться.

В разговорной речи употребляются конструкции it’s no use (good/ sense) + герундий-подлежащее:

It’s no use waiting any longer. - Бесполезно ждать дальше.

8) предикатива:

Оur aim is learning to speak English.-Наша цель - научиться говорить по-английски.

9) обстоятельства (в этой функции герундий всегда употребляется с предлогом:

а) обстоятельства времени (с предлогами on, upon, after, before, in):

Think bеfоrе answering. - Подумай, прежде чем ответить.

On seeing me he stopped. - Увидев меня, он остановился.

б) обстоятельства образа действия (обычно с предлогами in, without, by):

The girl listened without saying a - Девушка слушала, не говоря ни

word. слова.

By doing this, you’ll save a lot of time. - Сделав это, вы сэкономите много времени.

Отличие герундия от отглагольного существительного

Отглагольное существительное (The Verbal Noun) - это существительное, образованное от глагола путем прибавления суффикса -ing к основе глагола:

- to read -> reading чтение,

- to begin -> beginning начало,

- to melt -> melting плавление, таяние,

- to come -> coming приход и т. д.

Правила образования отглагольного существительного такие же, как правила образования причастия.

Отглагольное существительное обычно переводится существительным.

Отглагольное существительное отличается от герундия тем, что, в то время как герундий имеет свойства, как имени существительного, так и глагола, отглагольное существительное, являясь обычным существительным, обладает лишь чисто именными свойствами: имеет перед собою артикль, форму множественного числа, может употребляться с указательным или неопределенным местоимением, определяется прилагательным или причастием и принимает предложное дополнение (обычно существительное с предлогом of).

Герундий же не может иметь артикля, формы множественного числа, определяется не прилагательным, а наречием, принимает прямое дополнение, а не предложное и, кроме того, имеет формы времени и залога.

Примеры на отглагольное существительное:

- They watched his comings and goings - Они наблюдали, как он, приходил и уходил (букв. его приходы и уходы).

- The melting of copper, iron, and cast iron requires а very high temperature-- Плавление меди, железа и чугуна требует очень, высокой температуры.

- At the continued heating of a solid body the movement of its molecules becomes still faster - При длительном нагревании твердого тела движение его молекул становится еще более быстрым.

Употребление форм герундия

- Выражение одновременного действия

- Действие, относящееся к прошлому или будущему, безотносительно ко времени глагола-сказуемого

- Действие, которое предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым

- Сложный герундиальный оборот

Indefinite Gerund Active и Passive обычно употребляются для выражения действия, одновременного с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым в предложении в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени:

- Hе is interested in collecting rare minerals -- Он интересуется коллекционированием редких минералов

- He was interested in collecting- rare minerals -- Он интересовался коллекционированием редких, минералов.

- He will be interested in collecting rare minerals -- Он заинтересуется коллек- ционированием редких минералов.

- Герундий в форме Indefinite Active и Passive может выражать действие, относящееся к прошлому или будущему, безотносительно ко времени глагола-сказуемого в предложении, в зависимости от обстоятельственных слов или смысла всего высказывания:

- I remember meeting you somewhere before -- Я помню, что где-то встречал вас раньше.

- (Герундий в форме Indefinite Active (meeting) относится к глаголу-сказуемому в настоящем времени (remember), но выражает действие, относящееся к прошлому, на что указывает наречие before).

- The research party was sure of finding rich seams of coal.

- Изыскательская партия была уверена в том, что она найдет богатые пласты угля.

- (Герундий в форме Indefinite Active (finding) связан с глаголом-сказуемым в прошедшем времени (was sure), но по смыслу всего высказывания герундий выражает будущее действие.)

Примечание. После глаголов to need, to want нуждаться в, требоваться и прилагательного worth стоящий обычно употребляется активная форма герундия вместо пассивной:

- That needs explaining (но не: being explained). - Это требует объяснения. Mу drill wants sharpening (но не: being sharpened) - Мне надо заточить сверло.

- Is this article worth reading? (но не: being read) - Стоит ли читать эту статью?

- Perfect Gerund Active и Passive употребляются для обозначения действия, которое предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым в предложении:

- Apologizing for having stayed so iong he... asked Andrew to proceed with his investigation. - Извинившись за то, что так долго засиделся, он попросил Эндрью продолжать свое исследование.

- We know of wood having been used as structural material in prehistoric times. - Мы знаем, что дерево использовалось как стропительный материал в доисторическое время.

Примечание. После предлогов after и on (upon) употребляется Indefinite Gerund, если нет необходимости подчеркивать, чго действие, выраженное герундием, предшествовало действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым в предложении:

- After all the data being obtained the crystal was taken from the oil-bath -- После того как все данные были получены, кристалл вынули из масляной ванны.

Перевод герундия и герундиальных оборотов

Герундий, как инфинитив и причастие, является неличной формой глагола. По форме он почти полностью совпадает с причастием (за исключением формы прошедшего причастия - Participle II).

Для того чтобы правильно переводить герундий, не путая с другими грамматическими формами, имеющими окончание -ing необходимо знать его отличительные признаки.

Итак, -ing форма - это герундий, если она:

1) является подлежащим (без артикля или окончания s множественного числа; в этом случае мы имеем дело с отглагольным существительным):

Smoking is harmful. - Курение вредно. Курить вредно.

2) стоит после предлога, который всегда относится к глаголу, то есть во главе угла - действие:

On completing the experiment we decided to consult the supervisor. - По окончании эксперимента (После того как был закончен эксперимент) мы решили посоветоваться с руководителем.

The results depended on the problem being solved on time. - Результаты зависели от того, что проблема, будет решена вовремя (от своевременного решения проблемы).

NB: не путать с причастием, когда предлог относится только к существительному, то есть речь идет о признаке:

It all depends on the problem being solved. - Всё зависит от того, какая проблема находится в стадии решения (дословно: от решаемой проблемы).

3) стоит после глагола:

They regretted having told him about it. - Они сожалели о том, что рассказали ему об этом.

В список глаголов, после которых употребляется герундий, наряду с другими, входят глаголы, выражающие немало, продолжение и конец действия: start, begin, keep, continue, go on, finish, stop.

Ряд глаголов с предлогами, после которых употребляется герундий, стоит запомнить, поскольку в русском переводе предлог отсутствует:

account for - объяснять

be interested in - интересоваться

differ in - отличаться

keep from - мешать

result from - являться результатом

succeed in - удаваться, добиваться

4) стоит после притяжательного местоимения или существительного в притяжательном падеже:

Do you mind ту opening the window? - Вы не возражаете, если я открою окно?

His coming late was not a surprise to anyone. - To, что он пришёл поздно, никого не удивило. (Его поздний приход никого не удивил.)

My friend's becoming the prize winner of the contest was a good news for all of us. - To, что мой друг стая лауреатом конкурса, стало для всех нас хорошей новостью.

5) употребляется после следующих словосочетании:

- cannot help - не могу не: I cannot help thinking about it. - Я не могу не думать об этом.

- it is worth (it is worth white) - стоит (что-либо сделать): It's worth while reading this book (This book is worth reading) - Эту книгу стоит прочитать.

- It is no use - бесполезно, не смысла:

- It is no use waiting for him. - Нет смысла ждать его.

Как видно из проведенных выше примеров употребления и перевода герундия на русский язык, существует 4 способа перевода герундия:

1) именем существительным;

2) неопределённой формой глагола;

3) деепричастием;

4) придаточным предложением в составе сложноподчиненного предложения.

Обратите внимание на употребление герундия в функции различных членов предложения и особенности его перевода на русский язык;

1) Подлежащее

Implementing market reforms is a lengthy process. - Осуществление рыночных реформ - это длительный процесс.

NB: не путать с причастием: Implementing market reforms, it is necessary to keep in mind social needs of the population. - Осуществляя рыночные реформы, необходимо иметь в виду социальные потребности населения.

2) Прямое дополнение

Would you mind showing us the whole process? - Покажите нам, пожалуйста, весь процесс.

Would you mind their showing us the whole process? - Вы не возражаете, если они покажут нам весь процесс?

Герундий в функции прямого дополнения употребляется также после глаголов avoid (избегать), enjoy (нравиться), excuse (извинять), intend (собираться, намереваться), like (любить, нравиться), prefer (предпочитать), prevent (мешать, препятствовать), regret (сожалеть), try (пытаться, стараться), withstand (противостоять).

3) Дополнение с предлогом

We have succeeded in maintaining productivity level over the whole period. - Нам удалось удержать уровень производительности в течение всего периода.

4) Обстоятельство

In establishing a refinance rate it is necessary to take into account a monthly inflation rate. - При установлении ставки рефинансировании необходимо учитывать ват месячный уровень инфляции.

5) Определение

There is little probability of financial assistance being provided this year. - Маловероятно, что финансовая помощь будет выделена в этом году.

Герундиальный оборот может иметь две формы и переводится существительным или придаточным предложением в составе сложноподчинённого.

1) существительное в притяжательном или общем падеже (притяжательное местоимение) + герундий:

Professor Johnson's (His) presenting a paper at the conference was not announced until yesterday. - To, что профессор Джонсон будет выступать с докладом на конференции, было объявлено только вчера. (Его выступление ... было объявлено только вчера).

The outcome depends on all the of factors being used together. - Результат зависит от того, что все факторы используются (от использования всех факторов) вместе.

2) подлежащее английского предложения (которое не является непосредственным субъектом герундия) + герундий:

All the former Soviet republics are alike in having their poorly developed infrastructure. - Все бывшие советские республики сходны тем, что у них слабо развитая инфраструктура.

Lesson three

Тема урока: Some Building Professions

Грамматика: Интернациональные слова

Text 4

1. Read and translate the text

Some Building Professions

A man, who has been an apprentice for some years in a building trade and has therefore enough skill *to be considered a skilled worker at his trade¹, is called tradesman or craftsman. He may be a carpenter-and-joiner, bricklayer, mason, *slater-and-tiler², plumber, electrician, house painter, glazier, floor-and-wall tiller, plasterer, paper-hanger, steeplejack, *hot water fitter³ and so on.

Bricklayer is a tradesman who builds and repairs brickwork, lays and joints salt glazed stoneware drains, sets, chimney pots, manhole frames and fireplaces. He renders brickwork, including the insides of manholes. A sewer and tunnel bricklayer is a specialized bricklayer. In some districts of Greart Britain, bricklayers also fix wall and flooring tiles and slating and lay plaster and granolithic floors.

But elsewhere these are plasterer's specialties. Carpenter is a man who erects wood frames, fits joints, fixes wood floors, stairs and window frames, asbestos sheeting and other wall- board. He builds or dismantles wood or metal formwork. The two trades of carpenter and joiner were originally the same, and most men can do both, but specialize in one or the other. In the USA the term "carpenter" includes a joiner. The word is derived from the French word carpenter, which means a wood or metal framework.

Joiner is a man who makes joinery and works mainly at the bench on wood, which has been cut and shaped by the machinists.

His work is finer than the carpenter's, much of it being highly finished and done in a joinery shop *which is not exposed to weather ⁴.

In Scotland a joiner is a carpenter-and-joiner.

Mason is a stone worker or stone setter. In Scotland and the USA a bricklayer is usually also a mason. A fixer or a fixer mason or a builder mason is a mason who sets prepared stones in walls, whether the stone be only facing or to the full wall thickness.

Plasterer is a tradesman who may be a fibrous plasterer or a plasterer in solid work. The latter lays successive coats of plaster or rendering and fixes fibrous plaster such as mould cornices and wall pattern. *He can use a horsed mould, erect lathing for plaster, and apply stucco⁵.

A construction manager, or CM, provides services similar to those of general constructor, but represents client's interest during all phases of the building process — design as well as construction. They are usually paid a negotiated fee for the scope of services rendered. For example, working with the architect during design, the CM provides updated cost projections so that a client will know probable costs, which the project evolves. A general constructor, however, doesn't usually enter the scene until after the design is complete.

The CM decides who bids the job, picks up the request for invitation to bid, evaluates the bids, and awards work to the most reasonable bidder. The CM also prepares contracts and sends them out to the subcontractors. The owner signs the contracts with each subcontractor, unlike a general constructor who signs these contracts. As a result, the subcontractors are under the CM's direction. The CM may also be responsible for the safety of workers on the construction site.

2. A few explanations to the text.

1. ...to be considered a skilled worker at his trade — может считаться искусным в своем ремесле

2. ...slater – and -tiller — кровельщик (мастер по укладке черепицы)

3 hot water fitter—теплотехник

4 which is not exposed to weather—который не подвержен погоде

5. Не can use horsed mould, erect lathing for plaster, and apply stucco

- Он может использовать опалубку для бетона, крепить сетку под штукатурку и применять отделочный гипс.

3. Key vocabulary / expressions

apprentice [a'prentis] —n ученик, подмастерье

bid [bid] —n предложениецены; претензия

carpenter ['karpinta] —n плотник

chimney [' t fimni] —n труба, дымоход

cornice ['ko:nis] —n карниз

drain [drein] — n дренажнаятруба, канава; v дренировать, осушать

expose [iks'pouz] — v выставлять ( на продажу),

подвергать (опасности)

granolithic [grasna'liθik] —adj. сделанный из искусственного гранита

joiner ['djoinə] —n столяр

lathing ['leiθiŋ] — n сетка (под штукатурку)

mould [mould] —n форма, тех. лекало, шаблон; v формовать, делать по шаблону

plumber ['рlΛmbə] —n водопроводчик; паяльщик

render ['rends] —v воздавать; представлять; делать, превращать

request [ri'kwest] —n просьба, требование; ком. спрос

sheet [ζi:t] —n лист (бумаги и т. п.); ~ iron листовое железо

4. Phonetic drill. Read the words paying attention to the pronunciation of the italicized letters

4.1. [o:] was warm warrant want water wallet walk wash warrior warning wander watch walrus wall

4.2. attempt [э 'tempt], prompt [ prompt], doubt [daut], debt [det]

5. Add the missing information from the text

1... .is called tradesman or craftsman.

2. A fixer or a fixer mason or a builder mason is a mason who....

3. In the US A the term....

4. In some districts..., and slating and lay plaster and granolithic floors.

5...., including the insides of manholes.

6. Learn to recognize international words.

Give Russian equivalents to the following words without a dictionary

industry ['indastri]

information [infa'meijn]

progress ['prougras]

brilliant ['brilj ant]

metal ['metal]

fact [fekt]

operation [apa'reijn]

focus ['foukas]

emphasis ['emfasiz]

hyperbole [hai'pa:boli]

business ['biznis]

semester [si'mesta]

company ['ктрЭт]

enthusiasmfan' Gjuziazm]

Лекция 4

Интернационализмы

В английском языке, как и в других языках, есть довольно большое количество слов, которые имеют в основном латинские и греческие корни и понятны без перевода.

Например:

Radio, telephone, computers т. д.

Спорт (рус.) – der Sport (нем.) – шпоцу (рус.) – sport (англ.)

Такие слова называются интернационализмами. Они часто используются как термины, т. е. слова, обозначающие определенные понятия в науке, технике, искусстве. Сами названия наук также являются интернационализмами.

Например:

Physics, Mathematics, Biology и т. д.

Знание интернационализмов облегчает чтение, понимание и перевод научных и технических текстов.

Однако не все интернационализмы имеют одинаковое значение в английском и в русском языках.

Lesson four

Тема урока: Some Building Professions

Грамматика: Словообразование. Различные способы словосложения

Text 5

1. Read and translate the text

Some Building Professions and disciplines

Geophysics

A map of deviations in gravity from a perfectly smooth, idealized Earth.

Geophysics is the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations use a broader definition that includes the hydrological cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets.

Geotechnical engineering

Construction of an Embankment Dam in Navarre, Spain

Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the rock and soil that civil engineering systems are supported by. Knowledge from the fields of geology, material science and testing, mechanics, and hydraulics are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and similar structures.

Environmental concerns in relation to groundwater and waste disposal have spawned a new area of study called geoenvironmental engineering where biology and chemistry are important. Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited investigation. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material properties of steel and concrete used in other areas of civil engineering. Soil mechanics, which describes the behavior of soil, is also complicated because soils exhibit nonlinear (stress-dependent)strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress)

Water resources engineering

Hoover dam

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals.

Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

Structural engineering

Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building, in Dubai

Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in Bristol, UK

Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers, tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc.

The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering.

Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact.

Other considerations include cost, constructability, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.

Geodesy

Project manager Stephen Merkowitz talks about his work with NASA's Space Geodesy Project, including a brief overview of the four fundamental techniques of space geodesy: GPS, VLBI, SLR, and DORIS.

Geodesy is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space. Geodesists also study geodynamical phenomena such as crustal motion, tides, and polar motion. For this they design global and national control networks, using space and terrestrial techniques while relying on datum’s and coordinate systems.

Surveying

United States Navy Surveyor at work with a leveling instrument. Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the Earth.

Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively.

Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.

Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors may also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructures, such as harbors, before construction.

Land surveying

In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as cadastral surveying.

Construction surveying

Construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:

· Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground infrastructure whenever possible;

· Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction;

· Verify the location of structures during construction;

· As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.

Municipal or urban engineering

Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and bicycle paths.

In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of waste collection and bus service networks.

Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority.

Forensic engineering

Failed fuel pipe at right from a road traffic accident

Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property.

The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases.

Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.

Biomechanics

Page of one of the first works of Biomechanics (De Motu Animalium of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli)

Biomechanics is closely related to Civil Engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering sciences to analyze biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics and/or sciences can supply correct approximations to the mechanics of many biological systems. Applied mechanics, most notably disciplines such as continuum mechanics, mechanism analysis, structural analysis, kinematics and dynamics play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics.

Usually biological systems are more complex than man-built systems. Numerical methods are hence applied in almost every biomechanical study. Research is done in an iterative process of hypothesis and verification, including several steps of modeling, computer simulation and experimental measurements.

Asphalt Roads

Today, 96% of all paved roads and streets in the U.S. - almost two million miles - are surfaced with asphalt. Almost all paving asphalt used today is obtained by processing crude oils. After everything of value is removed, the leftovers are made into asphalt cement for pavement. Man-made asphalt consists of compounds of hydrogen and carbon with minor proportions of nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. Natural forming asphalt, or brea, also contains mineral deposits.

By 1872, De Smedt had engineered modern, "well-graded," maximum-density asphalt. The first uses of this road asphalt were in Battery Park and on Fifth Avenue in New York City in 1872 and on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington D.C., in 1877.

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel) and may be required to meet standards set by or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.

Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with run off coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.

Road construction on Marquette Avenue in Minneapolis

Road construction under optimum conditions should consider the following:

1. Use materials that are structurally sound. Road base materials using STRATEZYME should have a gradation mix (size distribution) that will result in good load bearing values and contain approximately 18%-30% non-granular fines (-200 mesh sized) and be cohesive in nature. Often roads have material outside design standards. If you perform field tests prior to construction to determine suitability, you will obtain excellent results upon completion. Some clays and fines are silty in nature and are not useful for road construction. Excessive fines may cause problems as a result of high plasticity and/or low load value.

2. Proper moisture must be maintained during compaction. STRATEZYME works best between 2%-3% below optimum moisture.

Do not compact above optimum moisture. After applying STRATEZYME to the road material to be treated, additional water may be applied to bring the moisture content to the optimum level prior to compaction

3. Generally, roads should not be compacted in lifts higher than 3”; however, the size and type of compaction equipment plus the type of material being compacted determine lift thickness. Sufficient compactive effort must be maintained during road construction to obtain maximum density. Less compactive effort will be required using STRATEZYME.

4. The STRATEZYME treated road should be allowed to cure prior to use (and final testing) if possible. However, the road may be used sooner if necessary. Drying of the base material will create less plasticity, decreased permeability and greater strength.

Step 1.

Blade or rip the existing road to a minimum depth of six inches and then windrow the loose material. If the road requires greater depth, work the material in lifts. If additional aggregate is needed, use less expensive material with more fines. Check the overall gradation of the material to insure it is within the design limits. The overall depth to be treated depends on the designed axle load requirements.

Step 2.

For each 165 cubic yards of road base material, use one gallon of STRATEZYME to the amount of water to obtain optimum moisture. Refer to the STRATEZYME work sheet for instructions. Spray both the bladed surface and the windrow to obtain optimum moisture. Blend the STRATEZYME treated material using a grader blade, working the soil and aggregate back and forth to blend in the STRATEZYME and water. If the material is too wet, then blade dries. If the material is too dry, add water without STRATEZYME to bring the material to the optimum moisture level.

After thoroughly mixing, spread the material to grade. The treated road material may be left in a windrow overnight to allow complete moisture absorption. This will result in better compaction with less effort.

Step 3.

Compact with a compactor such as a sheep foot or pneumatic roller. Vibratory rollers may be used for the first and second passes; however, further compaction should be done without vibrator action to avoid cracking. Compact in 3” of 8-cm lifts (layers) to insure maximum compaction. After allowing the road surface to dry (cure) for 72 hours, it is ready for use.

If an asphalt or chip and seal road top surface is desired, better bonding will be achieved by moistening the surface with a diluted application of STRATEZYME and water at a 1:10,000 dilution rate. This surface application may be applied any time after a 3-day period.

Their investment of time, effort, and the observations, which made this product possible, insures an attention to detail and on-site variables unmatched by those without a vested interest. This is the reason for our recommendation, that -Stratezyme Inc. road technicians and engineers are on-site for the initial constructs.

3. Have you read the text attentively?

Give equivalent English phrases to the following Russian ones

мастер по укладке черепицы

считаться искусным в своем ремесле

быть подверженным влиянию погоды

многослойная штукатурка

столярная мастерская

верхолаз

каменщик

4. Add the missing information from the text

1... .is called tradesman or craftsman.

2. A fixer or a fixer mason or a builder mason is a mason who....

3. In the US A the term....

4. In some districts..., and slating and lay plaster and granolithic floors.

5.... including the insides of manholes.

Лекция 5

Словообразование. Cловосложение

В английском языке существуют следующие способы образования новых слов: словосложение, словопроизводство и конверсия.

1. Словосложение — это соединение двух слов в одно с образованием нового слова.

Примеры сложных существительных:

schoolchildren — школьники

postman — почтальон

newspaper — газета

blackboard - школьная доска

classroom- классная комната

man-of-war - военный

mother-in-law - свекровь

Примеры сложных прилагательных:

waterproof — водонепроницаемый

red-hot — накаленный докрасна

first-class — первоклассный.

Примеры сложных местоимений:

something — что-нибудь

anywhere — везде

somehow — как-нибудь.

Сложные местоимения:

nobody, somebody, something.

Сложные причастия:

well-known, wide - spread, etc.

Формулы словосложения: а) существительное + существительное:

Rainbow (радуга), headache (головная боль)

б) прилагательное + существительное:

Blackboard (классная доска), blackberry (ежевика)

в) наречие + существительное:

Afternoon (время после полудня)

г) глагол + существительное:

Flashlight (электрический фонарь, лампа вспышки), knitwear (вязаные вещи, трикотаж)

д) существительное + глагол:

Handshake (рукопожатие), dancehall (танцзал)

Основы сложных существительных могут писаться:

- слитно:

Sunlight (солнечный свет), dressmaker (портниха)

- через дефис:

Record-player (проигрыватель), passer-by (прохожий)

- раздельно:

Fountain pen (авторучка), oak tree (дуб)

е) существительное + причастие на -ing (participle I):

Heart-breaking (вызывающий сильную печаль), breath-taking (захватывающий)

ж) прилагательное + причастие на -ing (participle I):

Good-looking (приятный на вид, красивый), easy-going (беспечный, беззаботный)

и) существительное + причастие II (participle II):

Hand-made (ручной работы), paper-covered (в бумажном переплете)

к) существительное + прилагательное:

Brick-red (кирпично - красный), jet-black (черный, как смоль), sea-green (цвета морской волны)

Lesson five

Тема урока: From the History of Building

Грамматика: Словообразование. Словопроизводство.

Суффиксы. Префиксы

Text 6

From the History of Building

Many thousands of years ago there were no houses such as people live in today. In hot countries people sometimes made their homes in the trees and used leaves to protect themselves from rain or sun. In colder countries they dwelt in caves.

Later people left their caves and trees and began to build houses out of different materials such as mud, wood or stones. Later people found out that bricks made of mud and dried in the hot sunshine became almost as hard as stones. In ancient Egypt especially, people learned to use these sun- dried mud bricks. Some of their buildings are still standing after several thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians discovered how to cut stone for building purposes. They erected temples, palaces and huge tombs. The greatest tomb is the stone *pyramid of Khufa¹, king of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians often erected their huge constructions to commemorate their kings or pharaohs.

The ancient Greeks also understood the art of building with cut stone, and their buildings were beautiful as well as useful. They often used pillars, partly for supporting the roofs and partly for decoration. Parts of these ancient buildings can still be seen today in Greece. Whereas the ancient Greeks tried to embody the idea of harmony and pure beauty in their buildings, the Roman architecture produces the impression of greatness, might, and practicalness.

The Romans were great bridge, harbour and road builders. In road works the Romans widely used timber piles. They also erected aqueducts, reservoirs, water tanks, etc. Some of their constructions are used till now. It is known that the manufacture of lime is one of the oldest industries used by man. Lime is a basic building material used all over the world as today so in the ancient world.

One of the Romans, Marcus Porcius Cato, gave an idea of a kiln for lime, production: it's shape and dimensions. They are rough cylindrical or rectangular structures, built of stone in a hillside with an arched opening at the front to enable the fire to be made and the lime to be withdrawn. Such kilns were fired with wood or coal and were extremely inefficient. There are still many remains of kilns in some places of Great Britain as well as roads and the famous Hadrian Wall, which was erected to protect the Romans from the Celtic tribes in the first century A.D. Britain was a province of the Roman Empire for about four centuries. There are many things today in Britain to remind the people of the Romans: towns, roads, wells and the words.

By the way, Hadrian, the Roman emperor, was also the one who suggested the absolutely new for that time idea of building the Pantheon with a dome. He constructed it, and alongside with a number of other outstanding buildings such as the Coliseum and the Baths of Caracalla, it is still there in Rome. Many ancient buildings in Rome were designed by Hadrian as well as by other Roman emperors. In a period of 800 to 900 years the Romans developed concrete to the position of the main structural material in the empire.

It is surprising, therefore, that after the fall of the Empire, much of the great knowledge should have disappeared so completely. The knowledge of how to make durable concrete has been lost for centuries, *but mention was made of it in the writings of architects from time to time². Fusion of Roman and North European traditions in construction was reflected in many ways. Buildings combined the Roman arch and the steep peaked roof of Northern Europe. Roman traditions were continued in the architectural form known as Romanesque. London Bridge, finished in 1209, took thirty-three years to build. It consisted of nineteen irregular pointed arches with its piers resting on broad foundation, which was designed *to withstand the Thames current³. The Romanian period was followed by other periods each of which produced its own type of architecture and building materials. During the last hundred years many new methods of building have been discovered. One of the most recent discoveries is the usefulness of steel as a building material.

Nowadays when it is necessary to have a very tall building, the frame of it is first built in steel and then the building is completed in concrete. Concrete is an artificial kind of stone, much cheaper than brick or natural stone and much stronger than they are. The earliest findings of concrete building fragments belonging to prehistoric times were discovered in Mexico and Peru. The Egyptians in the construction of bridges, roads and town walls employed it. There are evidences that ancient Greeks also used concrete in the building purposes. The use of concrete by the ancient Romans can be traced back as far as 500 B.C. *They were the first to use⁴ it throughout the ancient Roman Empire *on a pretty large scale⁵ and many constructions made of concrete remain till nowadays thus proving the long life of buildings made of concrete. Of course, it was not the concrete people use today. It consisted of mud, clay and pure lime, which were used to hold together the roughly broken stone in foundations and walls. It was the so-called "pseudo concrete". The idea of such building material might have been borrowed from the ancient Greeks as some samples of it were found in the ruins of Pompeii.

Text 7

History of road's building

The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over tracks that often followed game trails, such as the Natchez Trace. In the Stone Age humans did not need constructed tracks in open country.

The first improved trails would have been at fords, mountain passes and through swamps. The first improvements would have consisted largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path. As commerce increased, the tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate human and animal traffic. Some of these dirt tracks were developed into fairly extensive networks, allowing communications, trade and governance over wide areas. The Incan Empire in South America and the Iroquois Confederation in North America, neither of which had the wheel, are examples of effective use of such paths.

The first goods transport was on human backs and heads, but the use of pack animals, including donkeys and horses, developed during the Stone Age. The first vehicle is believed to have been the travois, a frame used to drag loads, which probably developed in Eurasia after the first use of bullocks (castrated cattle) for pulling ploughs. In about 5000 BC, sleds developed, which are more difficult to build than travois, but are easier to propel over smooth surfaces. Pack animals, ridden horses and bullocks dragging travois or sleds require wider paths and higher clearances than people on foot and improved tracks were required.^] As a result by about 5000 BC roads, including the Ridgeway, developed along ridges in England to avoid crossing rivers and bogging. In central Germany, such ridgeways remained the predominant form of long-distance road till the mid 18th century.

Specifications for high-tech road building are becoming increasingly sophisticated – especially in the field of automatic compaction, compaction control, measurement and total documentation. Faced with the challenges of lower government spending, higher energy costs and tougher environmental protection, contractors need to be sure about the efficiency of their plant and the quality of their output. The avoidance of premature road failure due to insufficient compaction and the implementation of lower-cost compaction process are twin goals where intelligent technology is becoming indispensable.

For years, measuring technology has been synonymous with efficiency and quality control in compaction and has proven itself on innumerable construction sites and large-scale projects. BOMAG’s measuring and documentation system not only optimises the compaction process and documents results, number of passes, amplitude, frequency and working speed, but even detects and stores material stiffness values.

Documentation is handled via the well-proven BOMAG BCM 05 Compaction Management System. The E VIB value is the only measured value based on MN/m 2 which offers reliable compaction control as a physical value for all soil-based and most asphalt-based applications. This produces a significant advantage for the contractor as he can monitor the compaction of all layers from subbase to asphalt, using the same measurement value – comprehensive and consistent documentation for the entire project.

State-of-the-art BOMAG rollers can be equipped with an automatic compaction control system – ASPHALT MANAGER, single drum rollers can be equipped with VARIOCONTROL. These systems allow drivers to see key compaction data on a display screen – thus dispensing with guesswork. Unnecessary passes are avoided, saving time, money and protecting the environment. With each pass, the driver sees a surface picture of the site and the level of compaction achieved. The E VIB value in MN/m² is continuously calculated and indicates the achieved level of stiffness. Both ASPHALT MANAGER and VARIOCONTROL regulate the compaction force to the load bearing capacity of the sub-base. Drivers use automatic mode for approximately 90% of all applications, but a manual setting for jobs in a sensitive environment, e.g. close to buildings or on bridges, is always available

Job report: Bridge deck surfacing – sensitive work
Something of a masterpiece in road surfacing has been created on the A 38 near Leipzig. This is where a bridge for the new motorway crosses the "Weiße Elster" River and a rail track.

About 3,000m² of stone mastic asphalt road surfacing was laid along a bridge deck measuring 293m between the end bearing supports and with a width of 29.5m measured between the side railings. The contractor for the work, Arlt GmbH from Frankenhain, used three BOMAG BW 174s on this job, each one equipped with ASPHALT MANAGER and BS 180 precision chip spreaders. After four hours the work, carried out using the “hot on hot” method, was completed. Nothing extraordinary on normal road surfacing, maybe, but there are special working constraints on bridge-work because of the flexible bearing supports. If the contactor uses a smooth drum roller and conventional vibration technology the flexible bridge deck absorbs the vibration and specified compaction cannot be achieved. In any case, dynamic compaction is more efficient than static compaction of the mix. The ASPHALT MANAGER system was set to deliver minimum vibration loads. Test results showed that the required quality had consistently been achieved.

Arlt, the company contracted for this work, is not just a specialist in road surfacing. The company was founded in 1991 and now has 130 employees. Arlt is active in bridge building and foundation work. It also carries out earthworks – especially for bridges. Since the beginning of 2002, the company has specialized in the maintenance of bridges. "We decided on BOMAG machines right from the start. Altogether, we have eight BOMAG units amongst our plant fleet. This includes tandem rollers with ASPHALT MANAGER, single drum rollers with smooth drums, polygonal and padfoot drums and VARIOCONTROL – plus one milling machine", says Kerstin Arlt, who together with her husband is Associate Managing Director of Arlt GmbH.

2. Explain in English the meaning of the following words:

sun-dried mud bricks

timber piles :

pseudo concrete

the ruins of Pompeii

harmony and pure beauty

3. Find in the text equivalent English phrases to the following Russian

доисторические времена.

римский период

бесполезность использования стали

в качестве строительного материала

грубо обтесанный камень

они первыми использовали

недавние открытия

в довольно широких масштабах

4. Reading for specific information. Read the text, choose a right word:

Orientation and surveying of the Building.

Before beginning the (construction, work) of any building it is necessary to consider several (problems, ideas) closely connected with the lot where the (building, monument) is to be erected. Some of these problems are as follows:

Soil. (Soil, land) is a very important problem in the building of any house. The land may have a sufficient (depth, high) of rich top soil, but beneath may be a ledge of soil rock. In this way the excavation of the basement is very expansive, especially in climates where the footings must be carried down below the (frost, rain, sun) line.

Transportation. The problem of (transportation, soil) is the most important during the whole period of (construction, time) on the building site. One must see whether there are sufficient means of erecting ways for bringing up the (materials, people) and men for a building site. One must also see if there is a sewerage line, water supply line, (gas, water) line, electrical power line. The most important thing is how all of them can be used.

Surveying. A survey is a piece of land is plan, showing its exact dimensions and (level, range) of existing sewer and water mains, electric light, gas services, etc.

Footing and foundations. Now we shall consider separate parts of a building, beginning with (footing, style) and foundations.

The extra of the wall at the bottom can be obtained by making the wall thicker. It depends below the ground (surface, level).

5. Reading for specific information Read the text and answer the following questions to the text:

· Is soil a very important problem in the building?

· What are the functions of the foundations and walls?

· How does soil influence on the building of any house?

· What is surveying and styling of the building?

· Why may the exaction of the basement be very expensive?

6. Read the text again and complete the spidergram:

7. Read the following statements and say whether they are true or false. Correct the false statements:

· The transportation isn’t problem during the whole period of construction on the building site.

· Before beginning the construction of any building you should to consider several problems which connected with the lot where the building is to be erected.

· The land may have a ledge of soil rock, which will make the excavation of the basement very easy.

· The land may have a sufficient depth of rich top soil.

· Exterior is the “style” which the building is to be planned in.

8. Read the text again and complete the following sentence:

· The height of the ceiling that is clear height from floor to ceiling is …

· Now we … with footing and foundations.

· … is the most important during the whole period of construction on the building site.

· … is a plan of a piece of land showing its exact dimensions and levels… electric light,…

· When all the things…

After – Reading Grammar Focus

9. Complete the following words from the text:

Or__ntat__n, so__l, ne__es__ary, tr__nsp__tation, fou__d__tion, su__fi__ent, bo__tom, __xcav__tion, __are__ul__y, desi__er, gr__und, s__fa__e, pr__cti__al, __on__ider__tion, s__ve__, d__men__ion.

10. Translate from Russia into English:

· Земля может иметь достаточную глубину плодородной почвы, под слоем которой может быть слой скалистой почвы, что является причиной дорогих раскопок под основания зданий.

· Проблема транспортировки существует на протяжении всего периода строительства.

· При строительстве необходимо учитывать, есть ли канализация, проведена ли вода, газ и электричество, и как можно их использовать.

· Обзорный план участка земли показывает точный размер коллектора и наличие воды, света и газа.

· Дополнительная толщина стены в основании может быть достигнута за счет утолщения основания.

Лекция 6

Словопроизводство. Суффиксы и Префиксы

2. Словопроизводство — это образование нового слова с помощью суффиксов и префиксов.

Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы существительных

Суффиксы

-ег/ог — teacher — преподаватель, writer — писатель, actor — актер, doctor — доктор

-ist — scientist — ученый, artist — художник

-ment — movement — движение, development — развитие, government — правительство

-ance — distance — расстояние, importance — важность, appearance — внешность

-(t)ion — revolution революция, translation — перевод, operation — действие

-ity/-ty — popularity — популярность, honesty — честность, ability — способность

-hood — childhood — детство, neighbourhood — окрестность

-ship — friendship — дружба, leadership — лидерство

-age — passage — проход, breakage — поломка

-ence — conference — конференция, difference — различие

-dom — freedom — свобода, wisdom — мудрость

-sion/ssion — revision — пересмотр, discussion — обсуждение

-ness — happiness — счастье, illness — болезнь, darkness темнота.

Префиксы

re- — reconstruction — реконструкция

со- — cooperation — сотрудничество, coexistence — сосуществование

dis- — disadvantage — неудобство, discomfort — дискомфорт

in- — inaccuracy — неточность, independence — независимость

mis- — misunderstanding — недоразумение, misinformation - дезинформация

im- — impossibility — невозможность, impatience — нетерпение

un- — unemployment — безработица, unreality — недействительность

il- — illegality — незаконность, illiteracy — неграмотность.

Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы глаголов

Суффиксы

-en — deepen — углубить, lighten — осветить, strengthen - усилить

-fy — classify — классифицировать, electrify — электризовать, specify — определить

-ize — organize — организовать, characterize — характеризовать, mechanize — механизировать

-ate — indicate — указать, activate — активизировать.

Префиксы

со- — cooperate — сотрудничать

de- — decode — расшифровать, decompose — разложиться

dis- — disappear — исчезнуть

in- — input — вводить

inter- — interact — взаимодействовать, interchange— взаимозаменять

over- — overheat — перегревать, overhear — подслушивать

re- — reconstruct — восстановить, rewrite — переписать.

Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы прилагательных

Суффиксы

-able — comfortable — удобный

-al — natural — естественный, cultural — культурный, territorial — территориальный

-ant — distant — отдаленный, resistant — стойкий

-ent — dependent — зависимый, different — различный

-ful — careful — осторожный, useful — полезный, powerful — мощный

-ible — possible — возможный, visible — видимый

-ic — atomic — атомный, historic — исторический

-ive — inventive — изобретательный, effective — эффективный

-less — hopeless - безнадежный, useless - бесполезный homeless - бездомный

-ous — famous - известный, dangerous - опасный, various - различный

-у — rainy - дождливый, sunny - солнечный, dirty - грязный

Префиксы

un- — unhappy - несчастный, unable - неспособный, uncomfortable - неудобный

in- — independent - независимый, indirect — косвенный, invisible - невидимый

im- — impossible - невозможный, imperfect - несовершенный

ir- — irregular - нерегулярный, irrational - иррациональный

il- — illegal - незаконный, illimitable - неограниченный

non- — non-ferrous – цветной

Таблица 7- Основные суффиксы прилагательных

Суффикс	Основное значение образованных слов	Примеры	Перевод
1	2	3	4
-able	возможность осуществления, наличие качества	eatable, valuable	съедобный, ценный
-al	наличие качества, свойства	electrical medical	электрический медицинский
-ant	наличие качества, свойства	resistant different	сопротивляющийся различный
-ary	наличие качества	revolutionary	революционный
-ful	наличие признака	useful	полезный

-ish	наличие качества, свойства	childish reddish	детский красноватый
-ive	отсутствие качества	creative	созидательный
-less	наличие качества	useless	бесполезный

Таблица 8- Основные суффиксы глаголов

Суффикс	Примеры	Перевод
-ate	investigate	активизировать
-en	harden	закаливать
-fv	classify	классифицировать
-ize	memorize	запоминать

Суффикс	Основное значение образованных слов	Примеры	Перевод
-у	изменяет часть речи	badly	плохо

Таблица 9- Основной суффикс наречий

Lesson six

Тема урока: Ancient Wonders of the World

Грамматика: Чередование. Конверсия.

Text 8

Ancient Wonders of the World

The Great Pyramid is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World that still stands. It was built at the order of the Pharaoh Cheops, who once ruled Egypt. More than 100,000 slaves laboured for twenty years to build it. They had no machines, not even carts — all the work was done by human strength alone. Yet each huge block was so well laid that the Pyramid has stood for 5,000 years.Near the Great Pyramid in Egypt stands a huge sculptured rock called the Sphynx. The face is that of a man, perhaps the Pharaoh Khafre who had it built almost 5,000 years ago. But the body is that of a lion, and between its great stone paws is a small temple. Since no one knows exactly why the Sphynx was built, it remains a symbol of mystery — a riddle.In Babylon, one of the great cities of the Ancient World, there was a famous garden which amazed visitors for hundreds of years. It was called the Hanging Gardens, because it was built along arches and towers and looked like a wall of flowers and green shubs. The garden was kept alive by a hidden pool on the highest terrace, from which the water was drawn to appear in a series of fountains. The gardens were built by King Nebuchodnozzor, who is mentioned in the Bible as the cruel coqueror of Jerusalem.The greatest god of the ancient Greeks was Zeus, for whom the Roman name was called Jupiter. The greatest statue of Zeus was at Olympia, where the famous Olympic Games were held in its honour. The statue was 40 feet high — about seven times a man's hight — and was made of marble, dec rated with pure gold and ivory. After 1,000 years, an earthquake tumbled it down.

The temple of Artemis is one of the most famous temples of the ancient world. It stood for 600 years in Ephesus, a great city of Syria. The temple was sacred to Artemis, also called Diana, goddess of the moon. The finest sculptors and painters of Greece decorated his beautiful building, which was destroyed by the barbaric Goths.Only a few pieces of statues columns remained. They were dug up by modern scientists. Few remember the tiny kingdom of Caria, which once flourished in what is now southwestern Turkey. But the name of its king, Mau-solus, is known because of the word "mausoleum" — a massive tomb. The original Mausoleum, built in memory of this king by his widow,

Queen Artemisia, was so magnificent that it was one of the Wondersof the Ancient World. Rhodes, an island near Greece, was one of the richest and busiest towns of the ancient world. Standing across the entrance to its big harbour, was a huge statue of the sun god Helios, famous as the Colossus of Rhodes. Although ships sailed beneath these giant feet, the Colossus was not as large as the Amercan Statue of Liberty.

The most famous lighthouse in ancient times was the Pharos of Alexandria built by Alexander the Great. It guarded the harbour of Alexandria, in Egypt, and light atop a high tower could be seen for sixty miles. To keep the beacon the powerful electric lamps behind glass lenses used in our lighthouses were not yet.

Answer the questions to the text

1. What is a mausoleum?

2. Who destroyed the Temple of Artemis?

3. Describe the Hanging Yardens.

4. Where was the greatest statue of Zeus?

5. What is Rhodes famous for?

6. Why was the Pharos built?

Лекция 7

Словообразование. Чередование. Конверсия

2. Чередование

Словообразование при помощи чередования гласных и согласных:

to sing - song to choose - choice

to live - life to prove - proof

to feed - food to advise - advice

Словообразование при помощи чередования звуков:

aggregate ['ægrigәt] - n in the ~ в совокупности

['ægrigeit] - v составлять

separate ['sepәrәt] - adj. отдельный, особый

['sepә'reit] - v отделять; разлучать

Словообразование при помощи чередования ударения:

conduct ['kondәkt] - n проведение, поведение

[kәnd^kt ] - v провести; вести себя

subject ['s^bdჳikt] - n предмет

[ sәb' dჳekt] — v подвергать

Примечание: У существительных ударение падает на первый слог, а у глаголов - на второй.

3. Конверсия

Переход слов из одной части речи в другую без изменения формы слов и произношения: существительное глагол

water - вода to water - поливать

limit - предел to limit - ограничивать

hand - рука to hand - вручать и т. д.

По месту слова в предложении можно определить к какой части речи оно относится:

Ex. We usually iron our clothes with an iron, (v, n) - Мы обычно гладим свою одежду утюгом, (глагол, существит.).

"The Iron Heel" is a novel by Jack London, (adj.) — "Железная пята"- роман Джека Лондона, (прилаг.)

My right hand is stronger than the left one. (n) - Моя правая рука - сильнее левой, (существит.).

Hand me the pen, please, (v) - Дай мне, пожалуйста, ручку, (глагол).

The whole family was sitting at the round table, (adj.) - Вся семья сидела за круглым столом. (прилаг.).

Не fell down after the 3^rd round. - Он упал после 3- го раунда, (существит.).

They sat down round the table. (preposition). - Они сели вокруг стола, (предлог).

She suddenly turned round, (adv.). - Она внезапно обернулась, (наречие).

а) переход глаголов в существительные:

to doubt (сомневаться) doubt (сомнение)

to love (любить) love (любовь)

to laugh (смеяться) laugh (смех)

to conduct (вести, руководить) conduct (поведение) to present (дарить)present (подарок)

to record (записывать) record (запись)

б) переход прилагательных в существительные:

comic (комический) (a) comic (кинокомедия)

daily (ежедневный) (a) daily (ежедневная газета)

poor (бедный) (the) poor (бедняки)

rich (богатый) (the) rich (богачи) unemployed (безработный) (the) unemployed (безработные) young (молодой) (the) young (молодежь) old (старый) (the) old (старики)

Lesson seven

Тема урока: How the Ancient Builders Put a Hand to the Development of Different Languages

Text 9

How the Ancient Builders Put a Hand to the Development of Different Languages

The people of Babylonia were rich and powerful. They were alsohappy. They loved each other and they enjoyed working together. But one thing was lacking. Men had only the earth to enjoy. God had kept heaven for himself and his angels. The King of Babylonia decided that his people should have Heaven as well as Earth. So he ordered them to build a great tall tower.

Six hundred thousand men began making bricks and mixing mortar and piling up a building higher and higher. All day every day men carried bricks and mortar up a stairway on the east side of the tower. Then they walked down another stairway on the west to get more loads. This went on for forty-two years until the Tower was twentyseven miles high. It was so high that it took a man a whole year to carry bricks from the ground to the top.

Now the Tower had risen nearly to Heaven, and God saw that he would have to do something to keep the invaders out. Perhaps if he made it hard for people to co-operate, they would not be able to finish the Tower. To carry out his planGod sent seventy angels down to Earth. The angels had orders: first to take away the one language everybody understood, then to split the people up into groups, with each group speaking a new tongue of its own.

In no time the men who made bricks couldn't talk to the men who carried them. And the men who carried bricks couldn't say an understandable word to the men who laid the bricks. Everything was a mess, and everybody blamed everybody else for not understanding. People no longer talked about the Tower of Heaven. Nobody worked there any longer. And the Tower was soon ruined.

2. A few explanations to the text

1... .pyramid of Khufu ['ku'fu:] — пирамидаХуфу

2....to withstand the Thames current . — ...чтобы противостоять течению Темзы.

3. .. .but mention was made of it in the writings of architects from time to time — но время от времени можно встретить упоминание об этом в работах архитекторов.

4. They were the first to use... — они первыми использовали

5 on a pretty large scale— в довольно широких масштабах

3. Key vocabulary /expressions

art of building — искусствостроить

brick [brik] — n кирпич

borrow ['borou] — v (from) занимать, заимствовать

concrete ['konkrit] —n бетон,

dome [doum]—n купол

dwell [dwel] — v жить, проживать

embody [im'bodi] — v олицетворять, воплощать

erect [i'rekt] —v возводить, строить

find jfaind] — v (out) обнаружить, найти

kiln [kiln]— n обжиговая печь, сушильная печь

pile [pail] — n свая, столб

pillar fpils] — n столб, колонна

remains [ri' meinz] —остатки, руины

tribe [traib]—n племя

4. Phonetic drill

4.1. Read the words paying attention to differentpronunciation of letter combination ea

[e] weather, measure, health, ahead, leather, instead

[ei] great, break, steak, streak

[i:] team, means, beam, cheap, easy, weak, leave

[i э] theatre, realize, appearence, weary, dreary

[i'ei] permeate, create, delineate

4. 2. Mind the pronunciation of the following words with the italicized silent letters

tomb[tu:m], bomb[boum], lambpasm], limbflim], р1итЬ[р1лт]

listenflisn], christen['kraisn], fasten[fa:sn], often[o:fn],

soften['sofn]

thistle[0isl], mistletoe ['misltou], castle[ka:sl], apostlefa'posl]

gnome[noum], gnujnu:], gnarled[na:ld], gnashfnaej], gnawerfno: з]

4. 3. Explain the pronounciation of letter combination wh in each line

which, why, whelm, whammy

who, whole, whom, whose

5. Translate the extract into Russian

The term "civil engineering" is usually applied to such activities as the excavation and then the construction of different buildings, bridges, roads, docks, harbours and embankments as well as to the water control by dams and reservoirs, canals and aqueucts, pipelines and the reclamation of land.

By the way: What does the international word "reclamation" mean here? Explain it in the most detailed way in Russian.

6. Learn to recognize international words. Give Russian equivalents to the following words without a dictionary

harmony [hа:аэш]

tradition [tra'diζn]

decoration [deka reijn]

aqueduct ['aekwidΛk]

idea[ai 'dis]

tank [tasrjk]

position [ps'ziVn]

reservoirf rezavwa:]

manufacture [manju'fsektjs]

fragment ['fraegmant]

method [me03d]

period['pi3ri3d]

structure ['strAktVa]

arch ['a:tζ]

Lesson eight

Тема урока: Building development in Khabarovsk 8

Грамматика: Повторение грамматического материала.

Text 10

Building development in Khabarovsk

Until the mid XIX century, the territory of present Khabarovsk, in accordance with the Treaty of Nerchinsk is in neutral territory without distinction between the Qing Empire and Russia. V1858 in the Chinese city of Aigun between the Qing Empire and the Russian Empire, talks about the definition of membership of the disputed territories. On the Russian side they were led Governor General of Eastern Siberia, Nikolai Ants, with the Chinese - Amur Chief Yishan. May 16 (May 28, New Style), 1858 was podpisandogovor, according to which the entire left bank of the Amur river passed into the possession of the Russian Empire, the right bank of the river Ussuri passed into the possession of China, and the Ussuri region of the confluence of the Ussuri River in the Amur to the sea has been declared staying "in common ownership" to determine the boundaries.

After signing the agreement, by order Muravyov to found settlements along the Amur was otpravlen13 the Siberian line battalion under the command of Captain Jacob Dyachenko. The order was requested Dyachenko "superintendence of the 2nd Department of Amur line, joined by our settlements on the Ussuri River under the command of the military governor of the vowel Seaside area, the rear admiral Kazakevich." The same order Ants Dyachenko and ordered the commander of the Amur Cossack battalion foot Cossack captain Pompey Puzin promote the health of migrants.

In May 1858 the soldiers landed on the banks of the Amur and established a military post, calling it Khabarovka - in honor of explorer XVII vekaErofeya Khabarova. The post was founded May 31, 1858 - this date is considered the founding date of Khabarovsk, at the location specified Muravyov-Amur in February 1854 GI Nevelsk.

By August in Khabarovka were allocated plots of land for the construction of buildings. Then, three months after the laying of the post, he was visited by a traveler and geographer Michael Venyukov military.

July 12 Ants passed 13th Line Battalion at the disposal of the Governor-General of the Maritime region. But at the same Dyachenko retained sovereignty over the Amur populations, because it is his October 6, 1858 Ants instructed "main superintendence resettle Amur Ussuri Cossack battalion."

7. Find the corresponding Russian meaning of the international words given above in ex.5. Start compiling your own vocabulary of international words.

ex. business ['biznis]

1) бизнес, торговля, коммерческая деятельность

2) коммерческое, торговое предприятие, фирма

3) (выгодная) сделка

4) дело, занятие, профессия

8. Explain in English the meaning of the following words:

sun-dried mud bricks _________________________

timber piles _________________________________

pseudo concrete ________________________________

the ruins of Pompeii ______________________________

harmony and pure beauty ___________________________

9. Find in the text equivalent English phrases to the following Russian

доисторические времена ______________________________

римский период ____________________________________

бесполезность использования стали _______________________

в качестве строительного материала ________________________

грубо обтесанный камень ___________________________________

они первыми использовали ____________________________________

недавние открытия _______________________________________

в довольно широких масштабах________________________________

10. Translate the following sentences with PASSIVE VOICE

1. Engineering is divided into many branches.

2. A joinery shop must not be exposed to weather.

3. Walls are built to enclose areas and carry the weight of floors and roofs.

4. The word is derived from the French word charpente, which means a wood or metal framework.

5. First the excavation is dug for the basement, and then the foundation walls below ground level are constructed.

6. The joiner's work is finer than the carpenter's, much of it being highly finished and done in a joinery shop.

7. An outlet for this air should be provided in order to have good ventilation.

8. Many new methods of building have been discovered duringthe last hundred years.

9. Operational acceptance of the project takes place when the guarantee test has been successfully completed and the guarantees met.

10. After the war more than 90% of the old part of the city was left in ruins.

11. In 1954 the last tram was removed from the streets.

12. The town was perched on the hill.

11. Translate into English paying attention to PASSIVE VOICE

1. Когда был построен этот небоскреб?

2. Лекции по философии посещаются всеми студентами нашей группы.

3. Строительство этого моста должно быть завершено к следующему месяцу.

4. Все строительные работы должны быть закончены к концу года.

5. Этот дом должен быть тщательно осмотрен, прежде чемего снесут.

6. Эти вопросы решаются подрядчиком.

7. Цемент использовался египтянами при строительстве мостов, дорог и городских стен.

12. Translate into Russian paying attention to PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION

1. The ancient city of Troy was excavated by Schlieman.

2. The guarantee test is carried out by the contractor during commissioning.

3. This manual was written by our professor.

4. The theatre is praised by the experts as a milestone in city architecture.

5. Buildings having architectural or historical value are protected by law.

6. The new art gallery has been visited by many people.

7. The course papers will have been finished by the students by the end of December.

8. The City Hall was restored by the citizens after the WorldWar II.

13. Translate the following sentences with CONTINUOUS TENSES (ACTIVE AND PASSIVE)

1. We are discussing what we can do about the situation.

2. We are dreaming about a beautiful house.

3. A new road is being built not far from our district.

4. I was working on my report the whole day yesterday.

5. Don't worry! The project of the new theatre is being designedby our professionals.

6. When we came to that town again, a new mall was beingconstructed there.

7. She is constantly missing our discussions.

8. The air-conditioning system is being installed in our office now.

9. The moulds are being filled by concrete at the moment.

10. Look! The wall is falling down!

Лекция 8

ПЕРЕВОД ГЛАГОЛОВ В ПАССИВНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ

Пассивный (страдательный) залог показывает, что подлежащее выражает лицо или предмет, над которым совершается действие:

Не is always asked many questions. - Ему всегда задают много вопросов.

В английском языке пассивная конструкция употребляется гораздо чаще, чем в русском, поэтому существует и больше способов её перевода на русский язык.

Способы перевода глаголов в пассивном залоге:

1) русским страдательным залогом или кратким страдательным причастием:

America was discovered by Columbus. - Америка (была) открыта Колумбом.

2) русским действительным залогом (чаше всего с обратным порядком слов, то есть с подлежащим в конце предложения):

America was discovered by Columbus. - Америку открыл Колумб.

Перевод "Колумб открыл Америку" был бы неверным, так как в нём смещён смысловой центр оригинала: важно сказать, кто открыл Америку, а не что открыл Колумб. В переводе "Колумб открыл Америку" как раз подчёркивается, что Колумб открыл именно Америку (а не Индию), в то время как перевод "Америку открыл Колумб" как раз делает акцент на том, что Америку открыл именно Колумб (а не Магеллан).

3) русскими возвратными глаголами:

The research was done a few years ago. -Это исследование проводилось несколько лет назад.

4) русским безличным предложением:

The research was done a few years ago. - Это исследование проводили несколько лет назад.

It was believed (thought, considered) that... - Думали (считали, полагали), что...

Предлоги, стоящие после английских глаголов в пассивном залоге, при переводе ставятся перед словом, которое в английском предложении выполняет функцию подлежащего:

This article is often referred to. - На эту статью часто ссылаются.

Their conclusions can be relied on. - На их выводы можно положиться.

Ряд" английских глаголов с предлогами переводиться русскими глаголами, после которых предлог не употребляется:

How is this phenomenon accounted for? - Как объясняется это явление?

В число этих глаголов входят:

bring about - вызывать, осуществлять

comment on - комментировать

deal with - рассматривать

listen to - слушать

subject to - подвергать

touch on - затрагивать

В то же время некоторым английским переходным глаголам соответствуют русские глаголы с предлогом:

The eclipse was watched by millions of people. - За солнечным затмением наблюдали миллионы людей.

К таким глаголам относятся:

address - обращаться к

affect - оказывать влияние на

answer - отвечать на

attack - нападать на

follow - следовать за

influence - влиять на

join-присоединяться к

(to) invite - приглашать

I am invited меня - приглашают

I was invited - меня приглашали

I shall be invited - меня пригласят

В форме страдательного залога могут быть только переходные глаголы. Переходным глаголом в английском языке называется любой глагол, после которого в действительном залоге стоит прямое дополнение, например: believe (верить), build (строить), drink (пить), give (давать), hear (слышать), open (открыть), read (читать), see (видеть), take (брать) и др.

Непереходными глаголами называются такие, которые не требуют после себя дополнения: come (приходить), fiy (летать), live (жить), run (бежать), think (думать) и др.

В страдательном залоге в основном употребляются present indefinite, past indefinite, future indefinite. Значительно реже употребляются present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, present continuous, past continuous. Форм future continuous, а также всех времен группы perfect continuous глагол в страдательном залоге не имеет.

Страдательный залог (passive voice) употребляется обычно тогда, когда неизвестно, кто совершает действие. Важно лишь, какое действие совершается, и кто его испытывает.

I was asked to do it. Меня попросили это сделать (а не вас).

Здесь важно, что попросили именно меня, а не другого; кто попросил, не важно.

I was asked to help him, and I did. (I helped him.) Меня попросили ему помочь, и я ему помог.

Здесь важно, почему я это сделал. Я ему помог, потому что меня об этом попросили.

His suit was pressed, his shoes gleamed brightly. (Wd.) Его костюм был отглажен, а туфли начищены до блеска.

They were never seen otherwise than together. (Gls.) Их всегда видели только вместе.

The door was opened and Soames came in. (Gls.) Дверь открылась, и Соме вошел.

Таблица 10 – Времена английского глагола в пассивном залоге

Число	Утвердительная форма		Вопросительная форма		Отрицательная форма
1. Present indefinite passive
Ед.	I am asked. You are asked. He (she, it) is asked.		Am I asked? Are you asked? Is he (she, it) asked?		I am not asked. You are not asked. He (she, it) is not asked.
Мл.	We (you, they) are asked.		Are we (you, they) asked?		We (you, they) are not asked.
2. Past indefinite passive
Ед.	I (he, she, it) was asked. You were asked.		Was I (he, she, it) asked? Were you asked?		I (he, she, it) was not asked. You were not asked.
Мн.	We (you, they) were asked.		Were we (you, they) asked?		We (you, they) were not asked.
3. Future indefinite passive
Ед.	I shall be asked. You (he, she, it) will be asked.			Shall I be asked? Will you (he, she, it) be asked?		I shall not be asked. You (he, she, it) will not be asked^
Мн.	We shall be asked. You (they) will be asked.			Shall we be asked? Will you (they) be asked?		We shall not be asked. You (they) will not be asked.
Число		Утвердительная форма		Вопросительная форма		Отрицательная форма

Окончание таблицы 10

Present perfect passive
Ед.	I (you) have been asked. He (she, it) has been asked.	Have I (you) been asked? Has he (she, it) been asked?		I (you) have not been asked. He (she, it) has not been asked.
Мн.	We (you, they) have been asked.	Have we (you, they) been asked?		We (you, they) have not been asked.
Past perfect passive
Ед. и мн.	I (you, he, she, it, we, they) had been asked.	Had I (you, he, she, it, we, they) been asked?		I (you, he, she, it, we, they) had not been asked.
Future perfect passive
Ед.	I shall have been asked. You (he, she, it) will have been asked.		Shall I have been asked? Will you (he, she, it) have been asked?	I shall not have been asked. You (he, she, it) will not have been asked.
Мн.	We shall have been asked. You (they) will have been asked.		Shall we have been asked? Will you (they) have been asked?	We shall not have been asked. You (they) will not have been asked.

Lesson nine

Тема урока: Construction of the first homes and roads

Грамматика: Повторение грамматического материала.

Text 11

Construction of the first homes

The first houses were built for the purpose of protecting their owners from the weather and, therefore, were very simple—a roof to keep off the rain or snow, and walls to keep out the wind.

The building erected now can be divided into two broad classifications: they are either for housing or for industrial purpose. As far as the material is concerned, the building can be divided into stone (or brick), wood and concrete types. The brick is an artifical material made of clay then burnt to harden it. The natural stone (rubble masonry) is used for footing and foundations for external walls carrying the load. The buildings made of stone or brick are durable, fire-proof and have poor heat conductivity.

The tiers or levels which divide a building into stages or stories are called floors. These may be of timber but in stone buildings they are made of ferro-concrete details in great and small sizes.

The coverings or upper parts of buildings constructed over to keep out rain and wind and to preserve the interior from exposure to the weather, are called roofs. These should tie the walls and give strength and firmness to the construction. Every building must be beautiful in appearance and proportional in various parts. The interior should be planned to suit the requirements of the occupants while the exterior must be simple without any excesses.

Any building should be provided with water, electricity, and ventilation and heating system.

Getting water into the house is called plumbing. The plumbers have also to get the water out after it has been used. The first part of this problem is called water supply and the second one is called drainage or Sewerage.

2. Key vocabulary / expressions

basement ['beizmant] —фундамент, основание; подвал

beam [bi:m]—n балка, балансир

cause [ko:z]—n причина, сторона

coat —n покрытие, ~ шаслой (краски)

commission—v пускать в эксплуатацию

contractor—n подрядчик

designed performance — проектная мощность

foundation [faun'deijn] —n основание, фундамент

framework ['freimwa:k] —n конструкция, структура

girder [' gə:də]- n поясная балка, прогон

precornrnissioning works—предпусковые работы

spare parts—v запасныечасти

timber ['timba] —n лесоматериал, строевой лес, балка

Text 12

Construction of the first roads

The first road use of asphalt occurred in 1824, when asphalt blocks were placed on the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Modern road asphalt was the work of Belgian immigrant Edward de Smedt at Columbia University in New York City. By 1872, De Smedt had engineered modern, "well-graded," maximum-density asphalt. The first uses of this road asphalt were in Battery Park and on Fifth Avenue in New York City in 1872 and on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington D.C., in 1877.

Historical road’s construction

The Porta Rosa is a Greek street dating from the 3rd to 4th century BC in Velia, Italywith a paved surface and gutters.

A paved Roman road inPompeii, Italy

The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, since in many cases animals do not follow constant paths. Others believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of this type of road origination, where man and animal both selected the same natural line. By about 10,000 BC, rough pathways were used by human travelers.

· The world's oldest known paved road was laid in Egypt some time between 2600 and 2200 BC.

· Stone-paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC.

· Corduroy roads (log roads) are found dating to 4000 BC in Glastonbury, England.

· The timber trackway; Sweet Track causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating (Dendrochronology) enabled very precise dating. It has been claimed to be the oldest road in the world.

· Brick-paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC .

· In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the Royal Road, which was one of the finest highways of its time.^]The road remained in use after Roman times.

· In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than transport by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank.

· From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. At its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads.

· In the 8th century AD, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated roads were those in Baghdad, which were paved with tar. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.^[

· The Highways Act 1555 in Britain transferred responsibility for maintaining roads from government to local parishes.This resulted in a poor and variable state of roads. To remedy this, the first of the "Turnpike trusts" was established around 1706, to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 trusts in Britain and some 36,800 km (22,870 miles) of engineered roads.

· The Rebecca Riots in Carmarthenshire andRhayader from 1839 to 1844 contributed to a Royal Commission that led to the demise of the system in 1844, which coincided with the development of the UK railway system.

Design

Structural road design is the science of designing a road for its environment in order to extend its longevity and reduce maintenance. The Shell pavement design method is used in many countries for the design of new asphalt roads.

Construction

A road being torn up.

Surveyor at work with a leveling instrument.

Asphalt layer and roller

Sub-base layer composed of cement-based material being applied during construction of the M8 motorway in Ireland.

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and havinggrades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction ofembankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.

After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern.

Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoffcoefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.

Road construction on Marquette Avenue inMinneapolis, Minnesota

A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The top soiland vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons. Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may bemulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to meet the design requirements (generally 90-95% relative compaction). blasting is not frequently used to excavate the road bed as the intact rock structure forms an ideal road base. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached.

Typical pavement strata for a heavily traveled road

Line marking

General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a lowplasticity index. The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel, which acts as an inhibitor to the growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified Particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The road bed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply.

Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids and geocells are frequently used in the various pavement layers to improve road quality.

Geosynthetics perform four main functions in roads: separation, reinforcement, filtration and drainage; which increase the pavement performance, reduce construction costs and decrease maintenance.

The completed road way is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and other forms of Road surface marking are installed.

According to a May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP—a national transportation research organization—driving on rough roads costs the average American motorist approximately $400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption, and tire wear caused by poor road conditions.

When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication, twinning or doubling. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.

Text 13

Technology of roads construction

Nature does not always provide the ideal ground conditions – whether for civil engineering or structural engineering projects. Quite often, the existing soil requires preliminary treatment to improve its bearing capacity. In other places, massive rock formations need to be levelled.

EACH NEW ROAD BEGINS WITH SOIL AND ROCK CONSTRUCTION

1 Soil Compaction 2 Soil Stabilization 3 Routing Operations

Every ROAD LEADS TO A DIFFERENT DESTINATION

The construction of a new road – whether from asphalt or concrete – requires the production of an excellently bonded pavement structure, beginning with a stable base layer and going all the way to a precisely levelled surface course.

1 Construction of base layers

2 Asphalt paving

3 Asphalt compaction

4 Inset concrete paving

5 Offset concrete paving

Road construction under optimum conditions should consider the following:

2. Proper moisture must be maintained during compaction. STRATEZYME works best between 2%-3% below optimum moisture.

Step 1.

Step 2.

For each 165 cubic yards of road base material, use one gallon of STRATEZYME to the amount of water to obtain optimum moisture. Refer to the STRATEZYME work sheet for instructions. Spray both the bladed surface and the windrow to obtain optimum moisture. Blend the STRATEZYME treated material using a grader blade, working the soil and aggregate back and forth to blend in the STRATEZYME and water. If the material is too wet, then blade dry. If the material is too dry, add water without STRATEZYME to bring the material to the optimum moisture level. After thoroughly mixing, spread the material to grade.

The treated road material may be left in a windrow overnight to allow complete moisture absorption. This will result in better compaction with less effort.

Step 3.

Extend and crown the road surface with the grader blade. If your material dried out on a hot day, spray again with a diluted STRATEZYME and water mixture (1 gallon STRATEZYME to 10,000 gallons water). Compact with a compactor such as a sheepsfoot or pneumatic roller. Vibratory rollers may be used for the first and second passes; however, further compaction should be done without vibrator action to avoid cracking. Compact in 3” of 8-cm lifts (layers) to insure maximum compaction.

After allowing the road surface to dry (cure) for 72 hours, it is ready for use. If an asphalt or chip and seal road top surface is desired, better bonding will be achieved by moistening the surface with a diluted application of STRATEZYME and water at a 1:10,000 dilution rate. This surface application may be applied any time after a 3-day period.

The foresight and tenacity which enabled the Stratezyme process to be developed and on the Global Market today- is the direct result of the collective years of experience, and dedication to this industry carried by our engineers and technicians. Their investment of time, effort, and the observations, which made this product possible, insures an attention to detail and on-site variables unmatched by those without a vested interest. This is the reason for our recommendation, that -Stratezyme Inc. road technicians and engineers are on-site for the initial constructs.

ROAD DESIGN

Where we present an introductory list of answers- prepared for Engineers- concerning New Construction, Substance Maintenance, and Surface Re-facing prerequisites

Traffic loads (wheel weight and frequency of use)

· Availability of road building materials

· Topography and sub-base soil conditions (soft or firm)

· Moisture (rain, snow, ground water)

· Long-term use and maintenance requirements.

Soft sub-base conditions require greater thickness – in some cases as high as 24 inches (60 cm). Where the sub-base is firm a minimum thickness of 6 inches (15 cm) can be used. Roads with truck traffic require greater thickness to support the high wheel loads of 20,000-30,000 lbs. (9,000-13,000 kilos). Analysis of the sub-base conditions and testing for load bearing capacity may be required to achieve proper design specifications.

Traffic loads and speeds also affect the life of a road. In many instances a hard “wearing” surface cover is necessary. High-speed traffic increases the mechanical forces applied to the road surface. To prevent surface wear a protective cover such as asphalt, concrete or a chip and seal coat may be necessary. Surface and sub-surface moisture conditions also enter into the equation for good road design. It is important that the road has adequate drainage and that the sub-base and road base be kept as dry as possible to prevent structural failure. Side drainage channels are important as is crowning the road surface to allow water to flow away from the road surface. Where ground water is near the surface it may be necessary to place a rock sub-base or other engineered treatment. It is up to the engineer to evaluate these conditions. Road building materials also affect the design of a road. The type and properties of the material greatly affect the performance of a road. Well-graded gravel and soil give maximum performance. Cohesive fines enhance the performance of a road, producing less rutting and fewer potholes. There are other factors to be considered. Civil Engineers qualified in road construction should be consulted for specific site conditions.

STRENGTH

The load that the wheel of the vehicle exerts on a gravel surface spreads out as it passes down through the road base.

The angle of force, increasing in width as it penetrates deeper into the road material, is referred to as the internal angle of friction O. It varies depending upon the type of material present. The objective in road design is to have sufficient road base thickness to support anticipated wheel loads. STRATEZYME treated material has increased compressive strength that resists deformation and excessive flexing due to wheel loading. This stabilization results in an overall stronger road base. It also means less maintenance.

STRATEZYME

Calculations for Road Work

Important: First determine optimum moisture for road mix and actual road mix moisture.

1. Translate the sentences into English

1. Хорошо, что ты был дома. Как бы я сделала без тебя ремонт в квартире?

2. Жаль, что вы не обратили внимание на предупреждение инспектора.

3. Ее требование состояло в том, чтобы ей заплатили за дополнительную работу.

4. Не может быть, чтобы эта компания строила такие старомодные дома.

5. Я потребовал, чтобы они показали мне проект дома.

6. Ах, если бы вы видели этот замечательный памятник архитектуры!

7. В этой комнате так холодно, как будто здесь забыли поставить батарею.

8. Нам бы хотелось, чтобы вы использовали дерево, а не фанеру при отделке нашей квартиры.

9. Мы прочитаем эту статью, чтобы мы знали о современных строительных технологиях.

Лекция 9

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТИПЫ ВОПРОСОВ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

В английском языке существует несколько типов вопросительных предложений: общие вопросы (general questions), специальные (special questions),альтернативные(alternative questions), разделительные(disjunctive questions).

1. Общий вопрос

Общий вопрос относится ко всему предложению в целом, и ответом на него будут слова yes или по. Do you like ice-cream? — Yes, I do. Can you speak English? — Yes, I can. Are you a schoolboy? — No, I am not. Have you bought a text book? — Yes, I have. Порядок слов в общем вопросе:

1. вспомогательный (модальный, глагол-связка) глагол,

2. подлежащее (существительное или местоимение),

3. смысловой глагол (или дополнение).

2. Специальный вопрос

Специальный вопрос относится к какому-нибудь члену предложения или их группе и требует конкретного ответа: What is your name? — My name is Peter.

Where do you live? — I live in Rostov.

Специальный вопрос всегда начинается с вопросительного слова:

who (кто?) where (где?)

whom (кого?) why (почему?)

what (что?) how long (как долго?)

which (который?) how many (сколько?)

whose (чей?) how much (сколько?)

when (когда?) how (как?)

Порядок слов в специальном вопросе:

1) вопросительное слово (what, where, who, when, how и т. д.),

2) вспомогательный (модальный, глагол-связка) глагол,

3) подлежащее,

4) смысловой глагол,

5) дополнения,

6) обстоятельства (места, времени, образа действия и т. д.)

В специальных вопросах, обращенных к подлежащему в формах Present и Past Indefinite, не употребляется вспомогательный глагол to do (did) и сохраняется прямой порядок слов: Who wants to go to the cinema? Whose pen is it? Who lives here?

• Вопрос к подлежащему (the Question to the
Subject) как в настоящем, так и в прошедшем времени не требует вспомогательного глагола. Порядок слов в таком вопросе прямой.

Who plays the piano in your family?

Who went to the picnic last Sunday?

What troubles you?

What made you happy?

Примечание. В настоящем времени глагол имеет форму третьего лица единственного числа. What helps you to be so active?
Who meets you after school, Benny?

3. Альтернативный вопрос

Альтернативный вопрос предполагает выбор из двух возможностей. Do you like coffee or tea? — Вы любите кофе или чай? Альтернативный вопрос начинается как общий вопрос, затем следует разделительный союз or и вторая часть вопроса.

4. Разделительный вопрос

Разделительный вопрос состоит из двух частей. Первая часть — 'это повествовательное предложение (утвердительное или отрицательное), вторая, отделенная запятой от первой, — краткий вопрос, который на русский переводится, не правда ли? не так ли?

You are an engineer, aren 't you? — Вы инженер, не правда ли? You aren't an engineer, are you? — Вы не инженер, не так ли?

В кратком вопросе повторяется вспомогательный, модальный или связочный глагол предложения, содержащего заявление. Если сказуемое предложения выражено глаголами to be или to have, то повторяются эти глаголы.

Не is reading, isn't he? — Он читает, не так ли? (Повторяется вспомогательный глагол.)

Не can read, can the? — Он умеет читать, не так ли? (Повторяется модальный глагол сап.)

Не is a good specialist, isn't he? — Он хороший специалист, не так ли? (Повторяется связочный глагол to be.)

Не has a book, hasn't he? — У него есть книга, не так ли? (Повторяется глагол to have, употребляемый как смысловой глагол.)

Если в повествовательной части разделительного вопроса содержится утверждение, то во второй — отрицание. Если в повествовательной части — отрицание, то во второй части, как правило, — утверждение: Не is there, isn’t he? — Он там, не так ли? Не isn’t there, is he? — Он не там, не так ли?

Lesson ten

Тема урока: The main parts of a building

Грамматика: Повторение грамматического материала.

Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты

Text 14

The main parts of a building

Almost everybody saw the construction of a building and *followed its progress with interest. First the excavation is dug for the basement, then the foundation walls below ground level are constructed; after this the framework is erected and clothed with various finishing materials and protected by several coats of paint. The part upon which the stability of the structure depends is the framework. It is intended for safety carrying the loads imposed. The floors, walls, roofs and other parts of the building must be carefully designed and proportioned.

The architect or designer must decide what the size of the walls, the floors, the beams, the girders and the parts, which make up the framework, will be and how they will be placed and arranged.

Here are the main parts of a building and their functions.

Foundations serve to keep the walls and floors from contact with the soil, to guard them against the action of frost, to prevent thefn from sinking and setding which cause cracks in walls and uneven floors.

Floors divide the building into stories. They may be either of timber or may be constructed of a fire-resisting material. Walls are built to enclose areas and carry the weight of floors and roofs. The walls may be solid or hollow. The materials used for the walls construction can be brick, stone, concrete and other natural or artificial materials.

Roofs cover the building and protect it from exposure to the weather. They

Учебное пособие для студентов II-III курсов строительных специальностей

My future profession –materials science and engineering

Инфинитив (The Infinitive)

Герундий (The Gerund)

Text 5

Some Building Professions and disciplines

Словообразование. Cловосложение

Text 6

Text 7

Text 8

Text 9

Text 10

Text 11

Text 13

Text 14