Бұл мадалада көшпелі қоғамның
ерекшіліктері ның негізінде сақ дәуірінен Ресей империяның Қазақ хандығын жоюына дейін Қазақстан
жеріндегі мемлекеттер құрылуының даму тарихы көрсетілген.
Ғасырлар бойы мемлекеттіліктің дамуында жалғастық байланыстар қарастырылған.
Keywords: state, breeding structure, nomadic
society, Sakas, Huns, Turkis
Since ancient times, this region
has been involved in various
ethnic and genetic relations. Different communities ranging from tribal
confederations to large states, formed
on the basis of interaction between different ethnic
layers, have led to the formation of the Kazakh ethnic territory and a steppe
civilisation which has developed into the Kazakh nation.
The origin of Kazakhstan
statehood is connected with the
Sakas (the 7th - 2nd centuries BC), who mainly engaged in nomadic and semi nomadic
livestock breeding. The nomadic way of life allowed the sakas and Scythians to succeed in making the
Great Steppe habitable. The core of the Sakas was made up of Issedonian tribes.
Eye-witnesses characterised them as brave warriors
possessed numerous herds of horses, sheep, and
cattle. The Sakas were wonderful riders and expert marksmen. A historian of ancient
Greece named them the best
archers in the world.
The Sakas belonged to an early
class society having three
estates: chiefs, priests, and community members (shepherds and fanners). A supreme
chief or king originated from warriors. The king was considered to be chosen by
the gods as a mediator between heaven and mortals. The art of the Sakas culture
is most vividly expressed through
their painting in the animal style, manifesting their mythology and attitude toward
life, and a special symbolic
system for showing the nomadic concept of the world.
This is proof both of their high skills in metallurgy, and progressive artistic thinking. In
the 4th - 3d centuries BC, the
Sakas developed a written language, an inherent characteristic of any organised state.
Therefore, the processes of
establishing of a state and the
appearance of a written language for the Sakas were interconnected and
simultaneous. Continuos linguistic
and cultural contacts among the Iranian, Ugric, and Prototurkic tribes were
maintained on the Kazakhstan steppe in the 1st century BC changed the ethnic and linguistic situation, and caused
the Turkic expansion to prevail.
The process of establishing a
state, which had begun in the
Sakas period, continued in the Hun community, which
created the first nomadic empire in the interior of Asia, and soon after that some
proto-Turkic structures existed
in Central Asia. When, in the 2nd century BC, the
Hun confederation became politically dominant, the State of Huns, called Jueban in some
Chinese sources, was then
established and existed until the 5th century. Its structure was similar to those
which existed in Hun nomadic
states in the 3d - 1st centuries BC.
The Hun state had an early class
organisation. It was governed by
four aristocratic families. The supreme governor, shanjui, could at that time
only be from Luyandi, the noblest
family bound with three others by conjugal ties.
These families were the Hun elite. The specific character of the supreme power
in the nomadic community was that
the entire family headed by shanjui ran the state.
There was a hierarchy of clans and tribes playing a significant role in the Hun society.
The subjugated tribes which were
included in the Hun system were the lowest rank
in this division.
The supreme shanjui was followed
by the left and the right “wise
princes”, usually his sons or closest relatives. They governed in the western and
eastern regions, being at the
same time military commanders over the right and the left wings, correspondingly. Then
there were twenty four local
governors’ having different titles, military commanders. The rule of shanjui
was exclusively hereditary, blessed
by the divine power, the divine kharism (Tengri Kut). The sacred rule of the shanjui
was perfectly inserted into the main features of the universe. Heaven and Earth were described as powers giving
birth, and Sun and Moon as powers
promoting life. A jasper seal symbolized the authority of the shanjui.
The army and population were
organised in tens, hundreds,
thousands, and ten thousands for military structuring
and census taking. Beginning from the 2nd century
BC, the Huns made records of the quantity of population
and cattle, according to which people paid an
income tax and a tax on cattle. Records were kept in a written form, and decrees and laws
were issued. The territory was
quarded by frontier sentinels. The economy was
based on nomadic cattle breeding, and special attention was paid to horse
breeding. The Hun cavalry was divided
in four armies, according to colours of horses: white, grey, black, and chestnut.
Well-trained and capable of great endurance, the cavalry was the main unit of the army and power of the state. The
favourite expression of Huhanie, a shanjui of the Huns, says that, “the Huns created their state fighting on
horseback”.
Slavery was widespread. In
population numbering 1.5 million people, more than 190 thousand were slaves, i.e. the one-tenth of the
population. Slaves tended sheep, and were engaged in agriculture and
craftsmanship. There was private property in the society for cattle and slaves. Subjugated tribes
were to pay tribute. The
traditions of the Hun state served as a prototype for nomadic states in Central Asia.
In the 6th century” the
development of state system in
Kazakhstan attained a new stage, which was connected with the first empire in
Eurasia, the Turkis Khaganat. The
historiography of China associates the Turkic people’s history with the breakup
of the Hun state. In the mid 6th
century, the Turks subordinated Zhetysu (Semirechie), Central Kazakhstan, and
Khorezm. Some time later, the
Khaganat borders expanded to the Northern Caucasus
and the Black Sea, allowing for establishment of
relations with Iran and Byzantium.
Gradually, the centre of the
Turkic ethno genesis moved from
the east westward to Central Asia. In the 6th-7th
centuries, ancient Turkic military and administrative systems of governing
became more popular among the
Turkic nations of Kazakhstan. Central Kazakhstan began to be influenced by the politics
and culture of the Turkic
Khaganat.
In the Turkic conception, the
Khagan was in the centre, personifying the entire state. There was the Turkic Khagan dynasty Ashina, originating,
according to legend, from a
she-wolf. People believed that their Khagans were blessed and had special power and
features, which were granted by
Heaven. They comprehended and honored Heaven
as having two constituents: the material essence and the supreme Deity. Turkic
inscriptions prove this assumption, stating that the khagan and his dynasty
were born at the will of Heaven,
Earth, water, and by deeds of the
Turks themselves.
An army flag and state
authorities were located in the
Khagans “headquarters”. Military administration covered 29 titles, with 5 ranks being
superior: yabgu, shad, tegin,
elteber, and tutuk. The other 24 were regarded as inferior. Each position was
herediatory. The Khagan’s closest
surrounding was “wolf” guardsmen, whose
flag was decorated with a wolf head. The traditional structure featured the
governing centre, the east and
the west regions, providing government and defensive stability.
The Turks had a developed common
law. They collected taxes and tributes. Every region and its population could
offer ten, one hundred, one thousand or ten thousand
soldiers. The society was divided into the nobility, the subjugated, and
vassals, arranged in a strict hierarchy.
The main economic activity was
nomadic cattle breeding; however,
a part of the settled population was engaged
in agriculture. Towns and steppe were interdependent elements of a single
economic structure. Private property as cattle, slave, and other possessions
was prevailing in the Sakas
community. Cattle was stamped with
tamga, a sign of ownership.
The Turkic ideological principle
was shamanism, with the
“official” cults of Tengri (Heaven) and Earth. Apart from these, Manihaeanism,
Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism were also popular. One off the best achievements of that time was the wide spreading of
the ancient Turkic written
language, which, obviously, became necessary for
the development of administrative, and diplomatic relations, and furnishing documentary
evidences of state decrees and
customs.
Three powerful state
organisations appeared on the territory
of Kazakhstan with the fall of the Western Turkic Khaganat: the Oguz state in
the Syr Darya and Aral region,
the Karluk state in the Zhetysu, and the Kimak Khaganat in Central, Northern and
Eastern Kazakhstan. These ethnic
and political unions continued the state administrative,
military, social, and cultural traditions of Turkic
Khaganats in 9th-10th centuries. Similarity in the organisation of society, the political
structure, as well as in ethnic
and cultural relationship allows consideration of the time of their existence as a
relatively integral period in the history of steppe empires and their cultures.
During the 8th-9th centuries, the
Kimak tribes strengthened their
positions over the territory stretching from the Altai to the south Ural
Mountains and the Syr Darya
River. These events became the impulse for developing
the local state system. It was first mentioned in the Arabic literature of the
9th-10th centuries. The Arabian
historian Al-Yakubi, remarkable for being well informed and exact, wrote that
“Turkestan and the Turks themselves
are divided into several nations, and several states(mamalik) ... Each Turkic
tribe has a separate state, some
of them are engaged in wars with others”. The
Arabian geographer Ibn al-Fakih mentioned that the Turks respected Oguzes, Kimaks, and
Tokuz-Oguzes, and all of them had
kings.
The power of the Kimak nl1er was
significant. Beginning from the 9th century, he was given the highest title of Khagan. The state authority
belonged to the ruling dynasty, which was the cradle for khagans. The
consecutive transition in titles of the rulers can be observed which the social and political
development of a tribe to become
a state. Historians have marked the inherited connection
of the Kimak titles from the ancient Turkic: khagan,
yabgu, shad, and tutuk. The traditional administrative and territorial
structure of the ancient Turkic state,
the system of wings, is founded in Kimak state power. The East Side (the Left Wing)
was located in the area of the
Irtysh River, while the West Side (the Right Wing)
was between the Ural and Emba Rivers.
During formation of the Kimak
state, the quantitative composition of the tribes had changed. According to the “Hudud al-alam” (the 10th
century) and al-Idrisi (the 12th
century), the core of the state was constituted of 12 tribes. The largest tribal
unions were the Kipchaks (Central
Kazakhstan) and the Kumans. These tribes included in the Kimak Khaganat were
politically dependent to the late 10th century.
Khagans enjoyed the real power
and appointed rulers and tribal nobility.
The hereditary power structure
existed inside each khagan
dynasty, khan family, or tribal nobility. The appanages, a total of eleven,
were handed down. However, the
appanages’ owners were subordinated to the Kimak Khagan. As the military and administrative
powers were consolidated in one
person, chiefs and commanders of the
main tribal unions strove for strengthening their political importance and for
independence.
The majority of the Kimaks were
engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. They performed long migration to seasonal grazing lands. Also, there
were some compact groups of
settled and semi-settled communities. With a reference
to the book of the Kimak prince, Zhanah ibn Hakan
al-Kimaki, geographer al-Idrisi wrote about towns along water bodies and in the
mountains, at the sites of quarries,
and on trade routes. The sources of the Middle Ages and archaeological findings prove
that there was social
stratification, taxes, and an ancient Turkic written language. Kimak tribes adopted ancient
Turkic beliefs, of which the most
important were the cult of Tengri and the
forefathers. Some groups worshipped fire, the sun, stars, rivers, and mountains.
Shamanism was widespread. Manichaeanism was also professed, along with Islam, which was popular among the nobility.
The Kimak Khagans were often
engaged in wars, though raids to
neighboring states altered with peaceful communications.
Many trade routes led to Kimak lands from
Eastern Europe, the Volga, Central Asia, Eastern Turkestan, and Southern Siberia. Numerous
caravan routes led to the
Khagans’ headquarters.
By the middle of the 10th
century, some Moslem trends
appeared there. They marked the initiation of a new Turkic state, Karakhanid. The
Islamization of the Karakhanid
Turks was a not a result of short-lived missionaries efforts, but a process of
Islamic penetration into the
Turkic environment, causing the replacement of
the ancient Turkic written language with the Arabic script. Despite the general adoption
of the traditions of the Turkic Khaganats,
the Karakhanid state repeated them
neither in the social sphere nor in the economy. Unlike the political systems of
nomadic communities in the
territory of Kazakhstan, the military power was separated from the
administrative. These structures were based
on the principle of hierarchy. The state was divided into appanages, whose
governors had great authority, up the stamping of coins with their names.
A feudal military system was the
main social and political institution in the Karakhanid state. The Khans
granted their relatives authority
to levy taxes on the populations of specific
regions in their favour. Turkic tribes were developing a more urbanised culture
and practiced agriculture. During
this transition, the formation of an ethnic community, which was more developed
than a tribe, became clearly
determined. The growth of self-consciousness of Turkic nations under the Karakhanids
induced the development of literature in the Turkic language.
In the 11th century, Jusup of
Balasagun wrote a poem, Kutadgu
Bilig (“Knowledge to become happy”), composed
of advice and lessons. The book described the
reality, public conscience, and political concepts of particular social layers. In 1074,
Mahmud of Kashgar wrote Divine
lugat at-Turk (“Dictionary of Turkic dialects”), containing rich linguistic,
historical, and cultural, historical,
geographical, and ethnographic facts about the
Turkic peoples. The outstanding philosopher and poet Hajji Ahmed Yassawi, one of the
famous Moslem preachers, has
remained in the people’s memory as a person
who managed to find a compromise between the
Islamic dogmas and the pre-Islamic beliefs of the nomads. His poems, collected in Divine-i
Hihmet (The Book of Wisdom),
praise meekness, and asceticism, and contain
information about cultural, moral, and didactic features of the peoples.
In the early 11th century, the
Kimak state was broken up due to the Kipchak khans’ separatism and the migration of nomadic tribes from the
interior of Asia. Consequently, the Kipchaks inherited vast lands from the Kimak state. The political importance
of the Kipchaks increased as they subdued peoples in the areas of the Syr Darya and the Aral and Caspian Seas to
their Khanate. The changed ethnic
and political situation brought about the
ethno-geographical term Desht-i Kipchak.
The political organisation in the
Khanate strengthened in the
middle of the 11th century, when the Kimak and Kuman tribes migrated to the
steppe near the Black Sea, and to
Byzantium. These tribal unions established a basis for the centrifugal driving in eastern
Desht-i Kipchak.
The Kipchak community was headed
by Supreme Khans, whose power was
hereditary. The ru1ing dynasty was
El-borili. The semantics of the term borili is connected with the word “wolf”. The cult of the
wolf, being the legendary “father” of some Turkic peoples, and a totem animal at several early stages of the Turks’
development, is well known in the
historical and ethnographic literature.
In the Khan’s headquarters,
called “horde”, there was staff
in charge of the Khan’s property and army. The
army had a two-winged structure similar to the traditional army of ancient
Turks. The headquarters of the right
wing were located on the Ural River, at the site of the medieval town of Saraichik. The
Khanate centre was located in
Central Kazakhstan, in the Turgai steppe. Military
organisation and the system of military administration acquired great
importance, as they represented a
specific nomadic life style, the most convenient for the steppe. The strict hierarchy of
the rulers (khans, tarkhans,
jugurs, baskaks, beks, and bais) was inequitable. Eastern Desht-i Kipchak
included 16 tribes. Their composition
was not haphazard, but exactly regulated in accordance
with the dynastic, social, and political level of every constituting people. The
composition of Kipchak tribes in
the late 11th - early 13th centuries was mixed and complex. The Kipchak community
“absorbed” some Turkic speaking
Kimak tribes, Kuman, Oguz, ancient Bashkir,
Pechenegs, and Iranian speaking ethnic groups which
became Turkic, in addition to four Kipchak tribes (El-borili, Toksoba, Ietioba, and
Durtoba). A strict clan and family
hierarchy in the nomadic states of Asia served as the guideline for social and state
development.
Both records were made and
correspondence with the governors
of the neighbouring states was conducted in
the Kipchak Khanate. Some Kipchak scientist and sages are mentioned in literary
sources. The level of communications
between nomadic civilisations on the vast
steppe was rather high.
The Kipchak society was socially
stratified. The basis for the inequality was the private property of cattle. Breeding of cattle suitable for
migration, and development of methods to use grazing lands and water reserves of the territory created the
ecological and material basis for
the civilisation’s development. It promoted the intensification of communal
production without damaging the
environment. Nomadic tribes roamed for hundreds and even thousands of miles. The
distances depended on historical
traditions, prosperity, and features of natural conditions. The main pastures
and migration routes were formed
over many centuries. In this connection, the concept
of a “native land” (or ethnic territory) originates from another concept - a “pasture
land””. The migration routes
could be changed only for some global economic, social, or political reasons.
Trespassing on cattle was
strictly punished: considered a convictable offence, it was judged according to the customary law (Tore). The cattle
were branded. If a person lost
his cattle and could not migrate any more, he became
settled (zhatak). But a soon as he had gathered enough cattle to migrate, he switched
to the nomadic life again. The
number of slaves was replenished from prisoners
of wars, who were deprived of rights.
The vast steppe territory and
geographical conditions promoted the development of several cultural and economic systems from nomadic
pasturing to fanning. However,
only a few groups were practicing settled agriculture, which is proved by the
remains of irrigation systems. Mining was also developed. One of the
metallurgical centres was the settlement of Miljuduk.
The rapid development of the
Kipchaks promoted their literary
language, the creation of literary masterpieces, which became a source for the
Kazakh language and literature,
and the formation of characteristic anthropological features of the Kazakh
nation. The Kipchak ethnic
community is directly connected with the ethno-genesis of the Kazakh nation.
Consolidation of Kipchak tribes
in the 11th-13th centuries was the main stage in the formation of the Kazakh
nationality. However, the final
stage was interrupted by the Mongol invasion in the early 13th century.
After the Mongol invasion,
Kazakhstan was included in the Golden Horde. Mongols took over the political
reign. However, the majority 0 the population was composed of he Kipchaks. The Mongol
nobility was gradually absorbed,
becoming relatives of noble Turkic families,
and assimilated in the Turkic environment. The more developed Kipchak culture triumphed
in this struggle between the two cultures. The concepts of Kipchak statehood turned out to be so
enduring, that, at the end of the
13th century, they became the basis for the establishment of the Ak Horde, the
first self-governing state after
the Mongol invasion of the Kipchak territory. Apart from the Kipchaks, the Kereits,
Naimans, Merkits, and Onguts
dwelled in the areas near the Irtysh, Ishim, and Tobol Rivers, and further toward the
Ulutau Mountains.
Internal wars between dynasties,
and a campaign to Kazakhstan’s
territory by Emir Timur led to the decline of the Ak Horde, change of the
dynasty, and establishment of the Abul Khair State, Mogulistan, Nogai Horde, and Siberian Khanate mostly
coincided, and the differences
consisted only of qualitative parameters of the
ethnic components. The dominating groups in the Ak Horde and Abul Khair State were the
Kipchaks, the Dulats in
Mogulistan, and the Mangyts in the Nogai Horde.
The ascending integrating trend in the ethnic processes
gradually prevailed. In the 14th-15th centuries, the formation of the Kazakl1s
was completed. The name “Kazakh”
underwent many transformations, and instead
of the initial social name became the name for the entire nation.
The establishment of the Ak
Horde, Abul Khair State, Mogulistan,
Nogai Horde, and Siberian Khanate, which had
many common features in their state systems (e.g. uniting of nomadic population in
Uluses, structure of governing, army, and taxation) became a significant stage
in the formation of the Kazakh
nationality.
The Kazakhs were subdivided and
included in other states, but
continuous internal wars between the offspring of Genghis Khan and the
nobility, and increasing aggression
from the neighbouring states caused the necessity
to unite related ethnic groups into one state. Ethnic, political, social, and
cultural processes in the territory of Kazakhstan in the 14th-15th centuries
resulted in the establishment of
the Kazakh Khanate in 1466.
Ak Horde, Abul Khair State,
Mogulistan
The Huns
The Turkic Khaganats
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