Definition. Characteristics.Sentence

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  Major synTax:
  Sentence.
  Simple Sentence
  
  
  Lecture 2.
  
  Definition.
  Characteristics.
  Sentence in langue and parole.
  Classifications
  

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  Sentence definition
  the immediate integral unit of speech built up by words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.
  
  a portion of the flow of words of one speaker containing a complete thought.
  

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  Word vs. Sentence
  Nominative units
  
  
  
  Predicative
  
  
  
  
  Modal
  Word: objects and phenomena of reality
  Sentence: situation
  Sentence: reflects the connection between the nominal denotation of the event and objective reality, showing the time of the event
  Reality of the situation, attitude of the speaker
  
  

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  Predication and modality
  connection between the named objects and actual reality.
  Modality is a broader category, revealed not only in grammar, but in the lexical elements of language:
  Modal verbs: can, may, must…
  Particles and adverbs: just, even …
  Modal words: perhaps, unfortunately…
  Predication = syntactic modality, expressed by the sentence.
  
  

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  Modality
  Objective: real / unreal situation
  
  Subjective: speaker’s attitude towards the situation (action)
  Mood
  
  Modal verbs
  Modal words
  

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  What type of modality?
  England and America are two countries separated by a common language. (G. B. Shaw)
  Even if you do learn to speak correct English, whom are you going to speak it to? (Clarence Darrow)
  We have really everything in common with America nowadays except, of course, language. (O.Wilde)
  Every English poet should master the rules of grammar before he attempts to bend or break them. (Robert Graves)
  

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  Predication
  Broad meaning: relation between the sentence and reality
  
  Narrow meaning: structural core (kernel) of the sentence
  

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  Predication
  the finite form of the verb = the predicate
  tense, mood, person, and voice = the main predicative meanings, actual evaluations of the event.
  
  You get married at twenty, you're going to be shocked who you're living with at thirty. (Peter Blake)
  

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  Expressing predication
  verbal time/tense and mood
  word order
  functional words
  Intonation in oral speech
  
  

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  e.g.,
  The Internet is like alcohol in some sense. It accentuates what you would do anyway. If you want to be a loner, you can be more alone. If you want to connect, it makes it easier to connect. (Esther Dyson)
  
  verbal time and mood
  word order
  functional words
  Intonation in oral speech
  
  
  
  

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  Hard work never killed anybody, but why take a chance? (Edgar Bergen)
  
  Things are only impossible until they're not. (Jean-Luc Picard)
  

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  Too bad the only people who know how to run the country are busy driving cabs and cutting hair. (George Burns)
  
  Only the mediocre are always at their best. (Jean Giraudoux )
  

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  Word? Sentence?
  What?
  
  Thanks.
  

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  Word vs. Sentence
  Word
  
  
  Sentence
  a ready-made unit, reproduced in speech
  produced each time in speech (except for a limited number of idiomatic utterances.)
  

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  Nominalization: S > NP
  transformation of a sentence into a nominal phrase
  
  His father arrived unexpectedly >
  
  his father’s unexpected arrival,
  the unexpected arriving of his father
  
  
  
  
  
  
  no predication
  
  
  

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  Nominalization
  She recovered soon. =>
  
  She grew vegetables at home. =>
  

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  Sentence as a unit of speech (“parole”) = utterance
  intonation: To London? To London!
  pauses, pitch movements and stresses, which separate one sentence from another in the flow of speech:
  Казнить нельзя помиловать
  

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  Sentence as a unit of language (‘langue’)
  typical models, generalized sentence patterns:
  
  SP The bird sings.
  SPO1 The hunter killed a bear.
  SPCComp He is a boy/ young.
  SPO2O1 Sam gave him a book.
  SPO1Compo He painted the door white.
  There PrS There is a book on the table.
  

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  Case Theory of the Sentence
  by L. Tesnière
  V
  |
  Actants
  (participants in the process)
  = valencies
  
  Circonstants
  (circumstances)
  

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  He gave me this book yesterday.
  gave (V)
  
  receiver object
  me book
  
  
  yesterday (time)
  - (place)
  

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  Proposition
  nominative content of a syntagmatically complete average sentence
  processual situation = an event:
  process (actional or statal) as its dynamic center,
  the agent of the process,
  the objects of the process, and
  various circumstances of the process.
  

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  Experience teaches slowly and at the cost of mistakes. (James A. Freude)
  Process?
  Agent?
  Objects?
  Circumstances?
  

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  What are the propositions?
  I have never met a man so ignorant that I couldn't learn something from him. (Galileo Galilei)
  
  I always learn something from people.
  Every person knows something.
  I can learn.
  
  

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  Functions of the sentence
  predicative function , or reality-evaluating
  nominative
  
  

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  Sentence predication
  Evaluation of the situation
  real or unreal
  the purpose of communication:
  declaration
  interrogation
  inducement
  affirmation and negation
  

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  Communicative Types of Sentences
  Declarative statements
  Interrogative (questions)
  Imperative (commands)
  
  ? Exclamatory ?
  I can do nothing to you.
  What can I possibly do to you?
  Do something!
  
  What can he possibly do to you!
  

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  Problem of the exclamatory sentence
  Not a communicative type:
  Do not express communicative intent
  Express intensity of tone
  

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  Affirmative sentences.
  Negative sentences
  I don’t know this.
  
  ???
  I know nothing.
  I saw him nowhere.
  It was difficult for him not to do it.
  
  
  not grammatical structure:
  affirmative
  

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  Semantic types of the sentence
  Existential (There is a book on the table.)
  
  
  

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  Structural and semantical
  Definite-personal (I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.)
  
  Indefinite-personal (They say we’ll have a warm spring this year.)
  
  Impersonal (It takes a touch of genius - and a lot of courage to move in the opposite .)
  
  

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  Structural classification
  simple
  S P
  It snowed last night.
  complex
  S P and S P
  He should have been here at five and he’s not here yet.
  compound
  S P when S P
  When I left college, I couldn’t find any work.
  

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  Simple sentence structure (based on main parts)
  One-member sentence
  
  Two-member sentence
  Fire!
  Come on!
  
  Helen sighed.
  

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  One-member sentence
  No separate main parts (no subject, no predicate) <= V. Vinogradov.
  
  Either subject or predicate <= A.Shakhmatov
  

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  Is it a one-member sentence?
  Why not?
  Haven’t heard from you so long!
  
  No. These are elliptical sentences, with one or more of their parts left out but easily restored from the context.
  

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  One-member sentences
  1-member sentence
  nominal
  What a picture!
  verbal
  Why stay there?
  

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  Structural types of sentences:
  full
  I am glad to meet you.
  elliptical
  Glad to meet you.
  

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  Structural type (based on secondary parts)
  Extended
  Hunger breaks stone walls.
  Every dog is a lion at home.
  Unextended
  Extremes meet.
  Promise is debt.
  

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  Глоссарий
  Предикативность
  Модальность
  Высказывание
  Валентность
  Актант
  Сирконстант
  Пропозиция
  Декларативное предложение
  Вопросительное предложение
  
  
  Повелительное предл.
  Утвердительное предл.
  Отрицательное предл.
  Простое предложение
  Сложносочиненное пр.
  Сложноподчиненное пр.
  Бытийное предложение
  Определенно-личное пр.
  Неопределенно-личное
  Безличное предложение
  

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  Глоссарий
  Односоставное предл.
  Двусоставное предл.
  Полное предложение
  Неполное предложение
  Распространенное пр.
  Нераспространенное пр.
  Именное предложение
  Глагольное предложение