NATIVE AMERICAN
BEADWORK
Contents
Introduction.……………………………………………..….………….………………..…3
Part I. Beads in
the life of the Indians………………………………….………………..…4
Part II. Kinds of beads………………………...……………………….…………………...4
1.1. Indian beads from
natural materials…………………………………………………...4
1.2. European beads…………………………………………………………………….….5
1.3. Shape, colour and other
aspects…………………………………………………….…6
Part III. Implications of
beads…………………………...…………………………….…...6
3.1. Spiritual
implications………………………………………………………………….7
3.2. Religious implications,
ceremonies and rituals…………………….……………...…..7
3.3. Aesthetic implications………………………………………………………...….……9
3.4. Historical and cultural
implications…………………………………………….…..…9
3.5. Economic implications……………………………………………….………………10
3.6. Political implications……………………………………………………………....…11
3.7. Social implications…………………………………………….……………………..12
Part IV. Beads in the cut of
European culture………………………...…………………..13
Part V. Our personal
contribution…………………………..…………….………………14
Conclusion………………………………………………...………………………………15
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………...……….16
“Certain things catch your eye,
but pursue only those
that capture your heart”
Introduction
From all over the world
and for thousands of years, humans have participated in jewelry wearing. The
history of ornaments is inextricably related with the history of culture and
development of mankind. Through ornaments people expressed their understanding
of the world. A big layer of human culture is connected with small objects -
beads, serving as material for creating different jewelry. At first sight these
goods don’t present any importance except their aesthetic beauty, but if we
examine them closer we’ll be able to understand that they have played a
significant role in the life of many peoples of the world.
I would like to focus
your attention on Native American beading. I got interested in this subject
when I was reading the book “The Last of the Mohicans” by James Fenimore
Cooper. One of its chapters described a ceremony of the Indian funeral. Burying
their friend, Indians put a beautiful belt made of beads into his grave. As far
as I understood, it was an unusual belt and some important tradition.
The more I read about
Native Americans and their relations with colonists, the more I realized that
the value of an object has to be examined in the specific cultural context and
can be measured in many different ways. So, in my report I am
going to consider beads in the cut of Indian and European culture. My aims are:
Ø to find out why different kinds of beads were so
attractive and valuable for Indians and how colonists used beads to come into
contact with Native Americans;
Ø to understand the reasons forcing aboriginals of America
to accept glass beads from Europeans in exchange for gold;
Ø to compare the Indian and European perception of
beads;
Ø to prove that jewelry made from beads carried a great
spiritual message for Indians;
Ø to awake my schoolmates’ interest in the idea of
balance with nature and the great wisdom of the Indians;
Ø to draw my schoolmates’ attention to
the problem of preserving Native American unique cultural heritage;
Ø to maintain Indian crafts by using
their techniques for making beautiful jewelry and toys with our own hands.
Beads in the life of the Indians
Beauty aside, wearing or
presenting jewelry had many social, economic, political and religious
implications for the Native Americans.
Jewelry was used to show
connection with a particular group. Beads validated treaties and were used to
remember oral tradition, as well as for exchange and currency. There were many
ritual aspects of beads and pendants used in ceremonies of dance, curing and
sacrifice. Jewelry was also used in many ‘rites of passage’ which individuals
passed through in their lives.
Beads are perhaps one of
the earliest forms of Indian art. From the young age, Native Americans are
trained in this delicate craft. Their beadwork styles are passed from
generation to generation, from master quill and bead workers to novice artists.
Although, each tribe has long had its own style, designers could and do share
their personal beliefs, emotions and experiences in their work.
Kinds of
beads
Native American beadwork
consisted of making, wearing, and trading beads. And this was about 8,000 years
BEFORE the Europeans crossed the Atlantic!
Indian beads from natural materials
Native Americans were lovers
of nature and worshiped the elements that they depended on (buffalo, rain) or
were in awe of (eagles, waterfalls, canyons, natural wonders). These themes are
characteristic of Native American jewelry.
Before contact with
European civilization, Native Americans on both continents were making
beautiful beads from natural materials obtained from their own area or through
trade with other tribes. Trade routes crossed the Americas and extended to the Caribbean
Islands, giving access to a variety of material: shell, metals, semi-precious
stones, pearl, bone, ivory, feathers and fossils.
Many of the beads that
were used in traditional Native American beadwork were beads that had been
carved out of different animal horns, turtle shells, and even deer hooves. Some
other popular choices of beads were animals’ teeth and claws. Wooden beads,
sometimes dyed, were carved and drilled. Hard seeds were steamed to soften them
for awl piercing and stringing. Small animal bones were polished and shaped
into cylinders for neck.
Wampum was the most
important bead in American history. The word "wampum" comes from the
Narragansett word and means 'white shell beads'. Wampum beads were made from
the growth rings of the Quahog shell. They were sacred and used in all public
events.
Thus, the desire for
harmony with nature defined Native Americans’ special appreciation of beauty.
Being products of Mother Earth, beads from natural materials appealed to them
most of all.
European beads
The arrival of explorers
and traders from Europe changed the materials Native Americans used, as well as
influenced traditional patterns. Europeans made other types of beads available.
Glass (made in Venice, Italy), ceramic, and cast metal beads (silver, brass,
nickel, copper and zinc) were trade items used from the 16th century on. Native
Americans quickly adopted the new material, incorporating glass beads into
traditional patterns.
Native American beadwork
changed and evolved over time when settlers started arriving and bringing
multicolored glass beads. With the new glass beads Indian women were able to
obtain through trade, came examples of Native American beadwork that were even
more beautiful and extraordinary than previously. Many European women liked the
intricate designs of glass beads and precious stones and some of these became
quite a valuable commodity for the Native tribes.
Although, the first
traders offered the finest beads they could get, including amber and faceted
beads, soon the Native Americans were asking for beads in specific materials,
colors and shapes.
Shape, colour and other aspects
Native peoples attributed
high symbolic value to glass beads that Europeans could not understand. In the
Northeast, round, polished, glassy beads were associated with seeds, berries,
shells, crystals, life, light, sight, and related concepts because of their
form. They resembled the clarity and hardness of natural crystalline minerals,
their polished surface was reflective like water and had a conceptual
relationship with 'seeing the soul'.
Coastal
Native American women had beads made in the shapes of ovals, barrels, circles,
cones, diamonds, triangles, and squares. Bone beads were carved in the form of
animals, birds and fish. These images of natural world were and are an important part of
Native American beliefs. Many of these animals and natural features held great
cultural and spiritual significance for the artists. For example, BEAR meant
power, protection and strength, EAGLE - courage, wisdom and keen sight, WOLF -
a guide, intelligence, steadfastness, protection, BUFFALO - abundance,
generosity, survival, HUMMINGBIRD - joy, healing, soul carrier, HORSE –
swiftness, SNAKE – defiance.
Colours were also of great
importance for Native Americans. Surprisingly, they didn’t value gold because
of its colour, they thought it to be the most worthless of all, and rated blue
and red above all other colours.
White wampum was the emblem of
health, peace, purity and good intention. Purple and black wampum conveyed
serious or civic affairs, sometimes indicating disease, sadness, distress or
hostility, at least in referring to the background colours in belt patterns. A
wampum belt painted red was sent as a summons for war.
So, unlike peoples of
other cultures, Native Americans valued beads more for their symbolic
associations of the form, material, color and other aspects, than for what an
item was worth. Jewelry made from these beads carried a great spiritual
message.
Spiritual implications
Indian beading was
traditionally performed by women as acts of extreme respect and reverence to
the natural world. Many of the patterns and images they used were highly
symbolical, to say nothing of the beading process. Using Native American beads
was considered sacred to these people, and the act of stringing the beads was
itself a form of prayer and reflection.
Each tribe put its
dearest values and most deeply held beliefs into its artwork. Making sacred
objects beautiful, especially by taking a lot of time and care, showed honor
and respect to the spiritual powers, not only through words and feelings, but
through artistry and work. That is why beaded items for religious purposes
(medicine pouch, pipe bag) were made personally, or given by relatives, not
bought or sold. Beadwork on such items often reminded the owner of a personal
vision or sign or the meaning of a personal name.
The examples of great
spiritual significance of jewelry made from beads may be bone chokers -
shortened necklaces carved from bone and horn. Bone chokers were believed to
insure spiritual protection of the voice. By wearing a bone choker, the spirits
of the animal it came from could save from all kinds of sicknesses. It was also
believed that the spirit would provide you with great speaking ability when
wearing a properly made bone choker. During tribal meetings, almost all present
who would speak, would wear a Bone Choker believing that it would give them the
power to speak from the heart. Only the chokers created by the tribes’
specialists had the greatest spiritual power.
Speaking of spiritual
implications of Native American beading, it should be emphasized that the
finished product was not considered to be as valued as the process of creation
itself, but was viewed as a beautiful product of this custom.
Religious implications, ceremonies
and rituals
Beadwork done as a prayer
or vow played a crucial role in the ceremonies and traditions of the Native
American people. Indians often integrated beads and pendants into ritual
expression and took great pains in the preparation of their appearance and
accessories.
Dance ceremonies
celebrated the change in seasons, harvest, births, marriages and other events.
They were often accompanied by chanting and throwing out wampum to onlookers.
Beads were often distributed and redistributed during Native American dance
ceremonies.
Ceremonies of healing
and curing often required the use of specific types of jewelry or
ornamentation. Shell beads of many animals were utilized in healing rituals.
Beads made from turtle shell were very popular as these reptiles symbolized
good health and long life. Jewelry worn and used in dance ritual were often
relinquished or destroyed in sacrifice.
Funerals used pendants
and amulets made of precious beads to ease the passing of the deceased back
into the earth.
Rites of passage where
also given further weight by the use of special Native American beads that
anchored the wearer to the natural world in a special and divine way.
Beads were an
important courting gift. When a man courted a woman, he brought her engagement
presents like silver combs, mirrors, and almost always, necklace beads. The retention of the wampum by the
bride was considered a sign of consent.
The following ritual
seemed to me one of the most important. It is called The Blessing Way and it is
a ceremony of giving a gift for the baby. Women were offered these gifts as
they anticipated the child's arrival. The gifts were beads and blessings in
the form of motherly advice and wishes for mother and baby. The beads were
thread together into a necklace. The mother-to-be wore her Blessing necklace to
the birth "protected" by the women of her village and their well
wishes. After the birth, the mother gave the necklace with her newly added
bead to the caretaker to be passed on to the next mother. Each baby born was
symbolically linked to the community, women strengthened their union with each
other and the preceding generations. Nourishing Native American spirit, this
ceremony celebrated the process of life.
As you see, being
perceived as a sacred prayer, beadwork and use of beads underlay and
strengthened ceremonial activities which embraced people for a common purpose.
Aesthetic implications
The most common use of
beads for the majority of peoples that inhabited our planet was enhancing their
household goods, homes and bodies. Native Americans were not an exception.
Indian beadwork can be seen on items ranging from basic clothing, handbags,
pouches, moccasins, headdresses and different pieces of jewelry often worn by
both men and women.
The amount of
beads worn by the Seminole women was a phenomenon to all who saw them. It could
reach 12 pounds or so of beads and a dress could be decorated with about 6
kg of beads. Imagine how difficult it was to conduct daily tasks, while
wearing that weight! Actually, beauty demands a great sacrifice.
Besides jewelry, beads
were inlaid into household objects of wood. Wampum inlaid wooden items included
tomahawk handles, pendants and native bread mixing bowls.
Historical and cultural implications
Native American peoples
had no written languages, so beads were used as a means of transmitting
messages through symbolic designs. Signaling peaceful, warlike, or other
intentions between tribes or tribes and colonists, belts were made using beads
of different colours and designs.
Native American beadwork
like woven wampum belts served as a device for recording important events. The
arrangement of beads in the design formed the basis for preserving the memory
of an event and passing down that knowledge to the next generation. A typical
large belt of six feet in length might contain 6000 beads. More importantly,
such a belt would be a great sanctity, because it contained so many memories,
its symbols when read by the elders, spoke volumes.
Wampum was used for
storytelling. The symbols told a story in the oral tradition or spoken word.
With "story" necklaces the narrator could show children each
character or make up his own tale to fit the beads.
The American William James Sidis
wrote in his 1935 history: "The weaving of wampum belts is a sort of
writing by means of colored beads, which could be read by anyone acquainted
with wampum language, irrespective of what the spoken language is. Records and
treaties are kept in this manner, and individuals could write letters to one
another in this way."
So, Indian beads not only
conveyed aesthetic or spiritual meaning, they commemorated historical events,
kept important records, were means of communication between tribes and
preserving culture and traditions of the numerous tribes within North America.
Economic implications
Wampum beads were part of
economy, reciprocity and gift exchange. Reciprocal gift giving cemented ties
between Native Americans. The similarity in design and abundance of shell
pendants, at both coastal and inland areas attests to Native American networks
of regional trade and sharing.
With European contact,
wampum was quickly evolved into a formal currency since metal coins were
scarce. It was strung to veins and arranged in lengths of one fathom (6
feet), which contained from 240 to 360 individual beads. Individual strands
were then worked into bands from one to five inches wide, to be worn on the
wrist, waist, or over the shoulder. Their current worth depended on the size
and colour of the beads. "Fathom" soon came to denote a specific
monetary value. A fathom of white beads was worth 10 shillings and double that
for purple beads. The wampum embroidered clothing of King Philip was valued at
twenty pounds.
Using shell, glass and
metal beads, early colonists and Native Americans could barter for the products
of the other. Wampum was even mass-produced by the Dutch, and remained in use
until the American Revolution.
Political implications
The very first
"United Nations" agreement (the Iroquois Confederacy), where national
growth was NOT by conquest or forced subjugation but where independent nations
joined together, was between the five original Iroquois Nations! This idea of
peaceful uniting disparate but still sovereign nations influenced the formation
of the federation that WAS TO BECOME the United States.
The Peacemaker envisioned
the Haudenosaunee (the Iroquois Confederacy) as one united extended Longhouse
in which each nation had its own hearth. This concept is written symbolically
into the Hiawatha belt. To the novice, the belt looks like interlocking squares
on each side of a tree, but to the Haudenosaunee, the entire story of how the
Great Law of Peace developed is encapsulated within these symbols.
The Great Chain, or
Covenant Belt, was presented by the U.S. government to the Iroquois in 1794 at
the Pickering Treaty at Canandaigua. The human figures, each linked by a wampum
belt, form a chain of friendship. The belt validated the alliance between the
thirteen states and the Iroquoian confederacy.
Furthermore, councils
could not meet without the proper seating arrangements as described in a wampum
string. Every procedure either adoption, mourning, speaking at council
meetings, treaty or contract all called for wampum.
The first war the English
fought against the Native Americans was a war fought over beads. Once the
English discovered how important wampum was, they began to manufacture wampum,
the supply of which the Pequot had controlled up until 1633. The Indians
rebelled and a war on the Pequots was declared.
Considering everything
stated above, we can conclude that the sanctity of wampum belts validating
treaties and contracts between Indian tribes and colonists extended to the
treaties themselves. Wampum belts served as visual reminders of the event, they
called to memory the arrangements agreed on. Actually, these belts were more
like important original documents. That’s why the laws were sacredly respected
and strictly observed.
Social implications
In addition to being used
for messages, treaties and adornment, these beads had social implications.
Beaded jewelry displayed the status of the wearer. A higher status was
represented by the intricate necklace and pendant arrangements. For instance,
chiefs, warriors or other persons in special leadership positions such as
medicine men could extend the number of strands in their Bone Chokers. The
other Indians wore bone chokers of one or two strands.
Jewelry was worn or
exchanged by Native Americans to indicate that individual had passed through an
important physical or social change. These transformations are called rites of
passage. Marriage, age, occupation and lineage could all be represented by the
humble bead. Groups within Native American society where categorized by totems,
signified by the jewelry. Native American Indian beads where used to display
their totems, and show how that connected them to their family, clan or group.
For example, among many northeastern tribes, individuals acquired a spiritual
totem at adolescence, often in the shape of a mammal, snake or bird, which was
henceforth carried with that individual. Personal totems often coincided with
those of a person’s family, clan or society. Jewelry was a means for Native
Americans to show they belonged to that group.
Today, wearing clothes
that reflects a historic tribal style is still a way for an Indian to express
solidarity with his or her people.
Beads in the cut of European culture
Europeans saw glass beads
as merely blobs of melted glass, 'trinkets', cheap and inexpensive exchange
commodity. In European countries where beads were produced, they were simply
priced according to the expense of ingredients to manufacture them. The
colonists could not understand a high symbolic value Native Americans
attributed to glass beads but they didn’t have trouble capitalizing on it.
As European explorers
started inland, one of the significant items used for gifts were glass beads.
Using them in trade for Indian friendship was prevalent in the days when
colonists sought control of North American territories. European traders and
politicians often exploited gift exchange to gain Native American favour or
lands. The Spanish, English, Dutch and French offered glass beads as presents
for building goodwill with the Indians as well as inducements to religious
conversion.
When Europeans realized
the importance of wampum for Native people, it quickly evolved into a formal
currency. While the Indians did not use it as money, New England colonies used
it as a medium of exchange. Purple wampum was more expensive than white, so it
was falsified and the trade was not honest.
Both
civilizations produced different things from beads. But it was the art and
workmanship of beadwork itself that was considered sacred in the Indian
culture. This is unlike Western society where it is normal to value finished
products more than the workmanship that was required to produce them.
In one word, unique and
noble Native American perception of beads often contradicts European ideas. The
only point where they meet is decoration and aesthetic beauty of the products.
Our
personal contribution
Native American arts have
been threatened by colonization, assimilation, and oppression, some of them are
almost extinct. Disappearing of Native crafts may lead to the loss of entire
cultures. Building respect for human rights, we must try to preserve their
culture and propagate Native American idea of balance with nature in our
society. I think it is through our youthful and energetic generation that the
culture, history and art of all ethnic groups can be preserved.
Beading and jewelry making
is a great hobby for all ages. Kids love to get their hands working, they also
can contribute to preserving Native American culture. We try to find different
instructions and methods of teaching these crafts, and discuss them at our home
reading lessons. We’ve found a lot of information about Native American
beadwork techniques and some other crafts.
I am fond of beadwork.
Working towards popularizing these crafts, I show articles made from beads to
my schoolmates and tell them legends connected with their creation. Last year
we took part in seminars and made presentations in many classes in our Lyceum.
Among the articles made
by the pupils of our group is an Indian cornhusk doll, a dream catcher, a
beaded turtle and a doll. According to the Indian legend the cornhusk doll
doesn’t have a face. She was too boastful of her beautiful face and forgot
about her duties. So, the Great Spirit took the reflection of her pretty face.
The turtle is the symbol of long life and good health. The Dream Catcher should
be hung above the bed to catch all bad dreams at night. As you see every
article has its own exciting story. We use these items to tell our junior
students about Native Americans and their unique traditions. We are going to
set up a little museum as soon as we have enough exhibits.
These items are valuable
not just for their beauty but for the process of their creation. Crafting these
things, we leant a lot, we enjoyed being together and thinking about important
things in our life. Unfortunately, Native American beadwork is not simple. In
fact, it can take several months to complete a single beadwork, but I am sure
it is wise as it helps to develop patience, observation, it challenges our will
and tests our character.
Conclusion
To sum it all up, beads
are a many-faceted part of native history in North America. It is amazing that
such a little thing, “a trinket” as Europeans call it, has played and is still
playing such a tremendous role in the life of the whole civilization! Examining
Indian beads, we look back through history at many aspects of Native American
life and realize how intelligent, wise, spiritual and creative these people
were.
The beauty of nature
inspired many generations of Native peoples to express their views of
themselves and the world around them with touching grace and artistry. I am
sure that Native Americans of today have survived only because they kept
holding on their culture and traditions.
My strong belief is that
every beaded item is worth taking efforts and spending your time. I know from
my own experience that one bead strung at a time, one stitch made at a time is
like one step to your goal… And here it is! Your work has been finished. Now it
is a tiny part of your soul which you can share with the whole world!
Different nations have
much in common. Let’s try to be more tolerant, peaceful, understanding and kind
to each other.
Bibliography:
1) Native American Crafts
Native American Beadwork
http://www.native-net.org/na/native-american-beadwork.html
2) The Complete Guide to Traditional Native American
Beadwork: A Definitive Study of
Authentic Tools, Materials, Techniques, and Styles, Joel
Monture, Wiley, 1993
3) Native American Quotes - They May Change You
http://www.support-native-american-art.com/native-american-quotes.html
4) About Native American Jewelry
http://crafts.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Leather_Cuff_Beading
5) History, Cultural Values of Beads
http://www.kstrom.net/isk/art/beads/art_bead.html
6) The Last of the Mohicans, James Fenimore Cooper, Moscow, 1949
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