Synonyms and antonyms
Lexical units may also be classified by the
criterion of semantic similarity and semantic polarity (contrasts). The
terms used to denote these two types of semantic relations are synonymy and
antonymy.
Synonyms are
the words classified according to the similarity of meaning
Antonyms –
according to the polarity of meaning
SYNONYMS
The word synonym comes from the Greek words
syn-together, onyma-name
Criteria of Synonymy
Traditionally
synonyms are defined as words different in sound form but identical or similar
in meaning.
In Modern
Linguistics this definition has been criticised on many points.
- It is
impossible to speak of similar meaning of words as such, as this part of
the definition can’t be applied to polysemantic words.
The verb to look is usually treated a
s a synonym of to stare, to gaze, to watch, to observe.
In one meaning look can be the synonym of these words, but in
another it can be a synonym of such words as to seem, to appear.
E.g.This looks (=seems) more like a pond than like a lake.
- It seems
impossible to speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning as a
whole as it is only the denotational component that may be described as
identical or similar.
If we analyse words that are usually considered synonymous, e.g.to
die, to pass away; to begin, to commence we find that the connotational
component, or, to be more exact, the stylistic reference of these words is
entirely different, and it is only the similarity of the denotational meaning
that makes them synonymous.
- It doesn’t
seem possible to speak of identity of meaning as a criterion of
synonymy as identity of meaning is very rare even among monosemantic
words.
- Attempts have
been made to introduce into the definition of synonymity the criterion of interchangeability
in linguistic contexts.This principle was put forward by Steven Ullman
in his book “Principles of Semantics”.
Synonyms
are defined as words which can replace each other in any context without the
slightest alteration in denotational or connotational meaning.
The contextual approach has been criticised chiefly for the fact
that words interchangeable in any given context are very rare and modern
linguistics generally assume that there are no complete (absolute) synonyms.
Words synonymous in some lexical contexts may be not synonymous in others.
Besides, it is difficult to accept interchangeability as a criterion
of synonymy because thethe specific feature of synonyms is that they are
not, can’t be and shouldn’t be interchangeable. Otherwise they would become useless.
Thus it
seems necessary to modify the traditional definition and to formulate it as
follows:
Synonyms are words different in
their sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and
interchangeable at least in some contexts.
Sources of Synonymy
- Borrowings.
- Words that come from
dialects
- Word-forming processes
- Shift of meaning, new combinations of
verbs with postpositives and compound nouns formed from them, shortenings,
set expressions and conversion.
The
majority of linguists who studied synonymy in the past focused their attention
on the prominent part of foreign loan words in English synonymy, e. g. freedom
: : liberty or heaven : : sky, where the first
elements are native and the second, French and Scandinavian respectively. O. Jespersen
and many others used to stress that the English language is peculiarly rich in
synonyms, because Britons, Romans, Saxons, Danes and Normans fighting and
settling upon the soil of the British Isles could not but influence each
other’s speech. British scholars studied Greek and Latin and for centuries used
Latin as a medium for communication on scholarly topics.
Synonymy
has its characteristic patterns in each language. Its peculiar feature in
English is the contrast between simple native words stylistically neutral,
literary words borrowed from French and learned words of Greco-Latin origin.
This results in a sort of stylistically conditioned triple “keyboard” that can
be illustrated by the following:
Native English
words
|
Words
borrowed
from
French
|
Words
borrowed
from
Latin
|
to ask
|
to
question
|
to
interrogate
|
belly
|
stomach
|
abdomen
|
to gather
|
to
assemble
|
to
collect
|
empty
|
devoid
|
vacuous
|
to end
|
to finish
|
to
complete
|
to rise
|
to mount
|
to
ascend
|
teaching
|
guidance
|
instruction
|
English
also uses many pairs of synonymous derivatives, the one Hellenic and the other
Romance, e. g. periphery : : circumference; hypothesis : : supposition;
sympathy : : compassion; synthesis : : composition.
The
pattern of stylistic relationship represented in the above table, although
typical, is by no means universal. For example, the native words dale, deed,
fair are the poetic equivalents of their much more frequent borrowed
synonyms valley, act or the hybrid beautiful.
The
important thing to remember is that it is not only borrowings from foreign
languages but other sources as well that have made increasing contributions to
the stock of English synonyms.
II.
There are, for instance, words that come from dialects, and, in
the last hundred years, from American English in particular. As a result
speakers of British English may make use of both elements of the following
pairs, the first element in each pair coming
from the USA: gimmick : : trick; dues : : subscription; long
distance (telephone) call : : trunk call; radio : : wireless. There
are also synonyms that originate in numerous dialects as, for instance, clover :
: shamrock; liquor : : whiskey (from Irish); girl : : lass,
lassie or charm : : glamour (from Scottish).
III.
Synonyms are also created by means of all word-forming
processes productive in the language at a given time of its history.
The words already existing in the language
develop new meanings. New words may be formed by affixation or loss of
affixes, by conversion, compounding, shortening and so on, and being coined,
form synonyms to those already in use. E.g. very many compound nouns denoting
abstract notions, persons and events are formed as synonyms to somewhat lengthy
borrowed terms. There are, for instance, such synonymic pairs as arrangement
: : layout; conscription : : call-up; precipitation : : fall-out;
regeneration : : feedback; reproduction : : playback; resistance : :
fight-back; treachery : : sell-out.
IV. Of
special importance for those who are interested in the present-day trends
and characteristic peculiarities of the English vocabulary are the synonymic
oppositions due to shift of meaning, new combinations of verbs with
postpositives and compound nouns formed from them, shortenings, set expressions
and conversion.
a) Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb with a
postpositive are widely used in present-day English and may be called one of
its characteristic features. Many verbal synonymic groups contain such
combinations as one of their elements. A few examples will illustrate this
statement: choose : : pick out; abandon : : give up; continue :
: go on; enter : : come in; lift : : pick up; postpone : :
put off; quarrel : : fall out; return : : bring back. E.g.: By the way, Toby has quite given
up the idea of doing those animal cartoons (Plomer).
b)
Quite frequently
synonyms, mostly stylistic, but sometimes ideographic as well, are due to shortening,
e. g. memorandum : : memo; vegetables : : vegs; margarine : : marge;
microphone : : mike; popular (song) : : pop (song).
c)
Conversion may also be a source of synonymy; it
accounts for such pairs as commandment : : command; laughter : :
laugh. The problem in this connection is whether such cases should be
regarded as synonyms or as lexical variants of one and the same word. It seems
more logical to consider them as lexical variants. Compare also cases of different
affixation: anxiety : : anxiousness; effectivity : : effectiveness,
and loss of affixes: amongst : : among or await : : wait.
Classification of Synonyms
The
only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician
Victor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, the famous Russian sholar.
Some
aspects of this classification are open to criticism (see Antrushina G.B.
English Lexicology. P.192)
Some
modern linguists (professor Arnold) think that absolute sunonyms are very rare
in vocabulary. The tendency for them is to change their meaning and drop off
the language.
Words
of the same meaning would be useless for communication and the phenomenon of
absolute synonymy may be considered temporary.
The
authors of “A Course in Modern English Lexicology” (RSGinsburg among them)
subdivide synonyms into purely ideographic (or denotational) and ideographic
stylistic synonyms.
Another
classification is based on the definition describing synonyms as words
differing in connotations. It classifies types of connotation by which synonyms
differ. (see Antrushina G.B. English Lexicology. Pp.193-197))
a)
The connotation of
degree (to surprise- to astonish)
b)
The connotation of
duration (to stare-to glance)
c)
Emotive
connotation (tremble-shudder)
d)
Evaluative
connotation (famous-notorious)
e)
Causative
connotation (blush-redden)
f)
The connotation of
manner (to pace-to stagger-to stroll)
g)
The connotation of
attendant circumstances (peep-peer)
h)
The connotation of
attendant features
i)
Stylistic
connotation (snack, bite-feast)
Synonyms
are combined into synonymic groups and the word with the centrsal meaning is
called the dominant synonym.
To
surprise- to
astonish—to amaze-to astound
To
tremble-to shiver-to
shudder-to shake
Fear-terror-horror
The dominant
synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the
most general way.
Synonyms
may be used as one of the very important means of creation of the stylistic
effects of speech. They are treated as expressive means in the language. Their
principal function is to represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, in
different variations.
There
is a special source of synonymy worth mentioning. It is euphemisms
in which by a shift of meaning a pleasant word substitutes a rude, too direct
or impolite one.
Euphemisms
are used either to avoid social taboos or superstitious fears or not to hurt
smb’s feelings.
Such
topics as pregnancy, eating, mental diseases, death and fatal diseases are
considered “delicate”.
Euphemisms
for pregnant: in an interesting condition, in a delicate condition, in
the family way, with a baby coming
To
die – to pass away, to be taken, to breathe one’s last, to close one’s eyes, to
kick the bucket (sl), to join the majority (sl)
ANTONYMS
Are
defined as words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style,
expressing contrary or contradictory notions.
Antonyms
are words different in sound form characterised by different types of semantic
contrast of the denotational meaning and interchangeable at least in some
contexts.
Hot-cold,
love-hatred, up-down, now-then
If
synonyms form groups, antonyms make up pairs.
Most
antonyms are adjectives: high-low, wide-narrow, old-young
Verbs
take the 2nd place: to live-to die, open-close, understand-misunderstand
Nouns
are not rich in antonyms: friend-enemy, good-evil, joy-grief, heaven-earth,
love-hatred
Antonymic
adverbs: warmly-coldly, here-there, now-then
V.N.Comissarov
in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups: absolute or root
antonyms (late-early) and derivational antonyms (to please-to displease,
honest-dishonest, regular-irregular).
Absolute
antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but
different affixes. In most cases negative prefixes form antonyms (un-, dis-, поп-). Sometimes they are formed by means of antonymous suffixes -/u/and -less (painful — painless).
The number of antonyms with the suffixes ful- and less- is not very large, and sometimes even if we have a word with one of
these suffixes its
antonym is formed not by substituting -ful by - less, e.g. successful - unsuccessful (the antonym of the adjective with the
suffix -ful is
formed by means of the prefix un-), selfless - selfish (the antonym of the
adjective with the suffix
- less is formed with the help of the suffix -ish ). The same is
true about antonyms with negative prefixes, e.g. to man is not an antonym of the word to unman, to
disappoint is not an
antonym of the word to appoint.
The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not only in their
structure, but in semantics
as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other, e.g. active - inactive. Absolute antonyms express contrary
notions. If some notions
can be arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members of the group will be absolute antonyms, e.g. ugly, plain,
good-looking, pretty, beautiful, the
antonyms are ugly and beautiful.
Leonard Lipka in the book Outline of English Lexicology describes different types of oppositeness, and subdivides them into
three types:
a) complementarity, e.g. male -female,
married - single,
b) antonyms, e.g. good-bad,
c) converseness, e.g. to buy - to
sell.
In his classification he describes complementarity in the following way: the denial of the one implies the assertion of the
other, and vice versa. John
is not married implies that John is single. The
type of oppositeness is based
on yes/no decision. Incompatibility only concerns pairs of lexical units.
Antonymy is the second class of oppositeness. It is distinguished from complementarity by being based on different logical
relationships. For pairs of antonyms like good /bad, big/small only the second one of the above mentioned relations of implication
holds. The assertion
containing one member implies the negation of the other, but not vice versa. John is good implies that John is not bad, but
John is not good
does not imply that John
is bad. The negation
of one term does not necessarily implies the assertion of the other.
An important linguistic difference from complementaries is that antonyms are always fully gradable, e.g. hot, warm,
tepid, cold.
Converseness is mirror-image relations or functions, e.g. husband/wife, pupil/teacher, precede/follow, above/below, before/after etc.John bought the
car from Bill implies that Bill
sold the car to John. Mirror-image sentences are in many ways similar to the relations between active and passive sentences. Also in the comparative form: Y is smaller than X, then X is larger than Y.
L. Lipka also gives the type which he calls directional
opposition up/down, consequence opposition learn/know, antipodal opposition North/South,
East/West (it is based on contrary motion, in opposite directions). The pairs come/go, arrive/depart involve motion
in different directions.
In the case up/down we have movement from a certain point. In the case come/go we have movement from or to the speaker.
L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets. Here
he points out serially
ordered sets, such as scales {hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold); colour words {black, grey, white); military ranks {marshal,
general, colonel, major, captain etc). There are gradable
examination marks {excellent, good, average, fair, poor). In
such sets of words we can have outer
and inner pairs of antonyms. He also
points out cycles, such as units of time {spring, summer, autumn, winter). In
this case there are no outermost
members.
Not every word in a language can have antonyms. This type of opposition can be met in
qualitative adjectives and their derivatives,
e.g. beautiful
- ugly, to beautify - to uglify, beauty - ugliness. It can be also met in words denoting feelings and states, e.g. respect
-scorn, to respect
- to scorn, respectful - scornful, to live - to die, alive - dead, life - death. It can be also met among words denoting
direction in space and
time, e.g. here - there, up - down, now - never, before - after, day -night, early - late etc.
If a word is polysemantic, it can have several antonyms, e.g. the word bright has
the antonyms dim,
dull, sad.
Antonyms
represent the language expressive means. Their main stylistic function is to
create contrast.
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