Articles.
The article is the structural word,
specifying the noun.
2 articles in English: definite
and indefinite.
Sometimes the use of the articles
can’t be accounted by the rules – a matter of tradition:
at night-in the night, as a result of
– under the influence of, to be in a rage, to take care of., etc.
The use of articles: grammatical and
traditional. The grammatical use of articles depends on the character of the
noun.
Nouns:
-
common nouns↓ →countable nouns: concrete and
abstract.
-
proper nouns. uncountable nouns: concrete and
abstract.
The functions of articles with common nouns.
The Indefinite Article.
Countable nouns:
-
the wish to name
the object: a thing, a person, an apple (the nominating function).
The indefinite article always
represents the idea of oneness and is used only before nouns in singular:
-
a hundred, a
thousand, a minute, a mile.
-
after the
negative: not a word, not a thought.
-
in some
set-phrases: one at a time, at a draught.
The indefinite article is
often used to introduce a new element (stress – on it) in the sentence. The
definite article usually indicates that a definite object is meant and that is
not new to the hearer (the noun is not the centre of communication).
With uncountable nouns,
the indefinite article represents a special aspect of the notion – aspective
function. In this case the noun is usually qualified by an attribute.
The Definite Article.
With countable nouns:
-
with singular or
plural nouns to show that the noun denotes a particular object or a group of
objects as distinct from the others – to single out object from all the others
– the individualizing function.
-
with nouns in the
singular it indicates that the noun becomes an image of the class – the
generic function.
-
with uncountable
nouns – restricting function: the definite article restricts the
material denoted by a concrete uncountable noun to a definite quantity, portion
etc.
The Zero Article.
The nominating function: with
countable nouns in the plural. It implies “more-than-oneness” and with
uncountable nouns, both abstract and concrete.
The use of articles with countable nouns.
General
rules:
Countable nouns in the singular may
be used:
-
with the
indefinite article in its nominating function.
-
with the
definite article in its individualizing function.
In the plural:
-
with the zero
article in the nominating function;
-
with the definite
article in the individualizing function.
Attributes, which modify the nouns
are divided into 2 classes: limiting and descriptive .
Limiting: indicate such a quality or
characteristic of an object which makes it distinct from other objects(with the
definite article).
Descriptive: is used to describe an object (definite
and indefinite articles).
The use of articles with
countable nouns modified by adjectives.
Attributes expressed by an adjectives
are usually descriptive. They do not affect the choice of the articles. The use
of the definite article in this case is accounted for by the situation but not
by the attribute. Adjectives may become limiting attributes when there is some
contrast in the notion. Adjectives in the superlative degree are always
limiting attributes. Some adjectives, adjective pronouns and adjectivized
ing-forms always serve as limiting attributes:
right – wrong, very, only, main,
principal, central, left, coming, following, former, latter, proper, adjacent,
alleged, lower, necessary, opposite, polite, previous, upper, usual.
The use of
articles with countable nouns modified by numerals.
-
cardinal numerals
serve as descriptive attributes; (three, two, five). If a noun modified by a
cardinal numeral is used with the definite article – this is accounted by the
context.
-
ordinal numerals
are usually limiting attributes. But? When ordinal numerals are not used to
indicate order but acquire the meaning ‘one more’, ‘another’ – the noun they
modify is used with the indefinite article.
But! A first night, a first prize.
The use of
articles with countable nouns modified by participles.
Attributes expressed by participles
are placed either in pre- or post-position to the noun the modify. When they
are placed in pre-position, they are usually descriptive attributes, like
adjectives (the use depends on the context). In post-position they may be
either descriptive or limiting attributes.
The use of
articles with countable nouns modified by ing-forms.
Pre- or post-position. Pre-position:
descriptive attributes. In post-position the ing-form may be either
prepositional or non-prepositional: descriptive or limiting (depends on the
context).
The use of
articles with countable nouns modified by infinitives.
Attributes expressed by infinitives
tend to be descriptive. Sometimes, depending on the context the infinitive may
become a limiting attribute.
The use of
articles with countable nouns modified by clauses.
Nouns can be modified by 2 kinds of
clauses – attributive and appositive (приложение).
Attributive clauses:
They may be introduced by the
relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that; and relative adverbs: where,
when and asyndetically.
There are 2 types of
attributive clauses:
-
attributive
clauses that can be removed from the sentence without destroying its meaning.
These clauses are never joined to the principal clause asyndetically. They are
called non-defining clauses, they are descriptive and do not influence
the choice of the article.
-
attributive
clauses closely connected with the antecedent (предыдущий член предложения) –they can’t be left without
destroying the meaning of the sentence. Such clauses can be joined to the
principal clause asyndetically or by connective words. They are called defining
clauses. They can be limiting or descriptive. Limiting – the definite
article. Descriptive – the choice of the article depends on the situation
(antecedent in Russian: такой,
который, такого рода).
Appositive clauses:
They disclose the meaning
of the noun. They can modify only certain abstract nouns: idea, feeling,
hope, thought, impression, sense. These clauses are usually introduces
by the conjunction that and are similar to object clauses. Such clauses
are usually limiting attributes.
The use
of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the common case.
Attributes expressed by
nouns in the common case are usually descriptive. Sometimes they may serve as
limiting attributes. In this case the attribute expressed by a proper name and
serves to show that reference is made to a particular object.
The use
of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the genitive case.
There are 2 kinds of
genitive case:
-
the specifying
genitive: - denoted
a particular person or thing: my mother’s book, my son’s toy. In this
case article refers to the noun in the genitive case and is chosen in
accordance with the general rules.
-
the
classifying (descriptive) genitive: which refers to a whole class of objects: sheep’s eyes,
mile’s distance. In this case article refers to the head-noun whereas the
noun in the genitive case serves as a descriptive attribute. As the article
refers to the head-noun, the noun in the genitive case may have the plural form
and be preceded by the indefinite article.
The use of
articles with countable nouns modified by prepositional phrases.
Attributes may be expressed by nouns
with various prepositions. They may be either descriptive or limiting. Here of-phrases
may be as descriptive and limiting attributes. Descriptive of-phrases are
recognized by clear-cut meanings:
-
quality
-
quantity or
measure
-
composition
-
material
-
content
-
age
-
size
-
comparison
Nouns modified by descriptive
of-phrases usually take the indefinite article. But sometimes – definite. All
other of-phrases are limiting- the head-noun is used with definite
article. The choice of the article may depend on the following:
-
if the head-noun
denotes an object which is only a bearer of the property – the definite article
is used;
-
if there are many
objects of the same description – the indefinite article is used;
-
a definite number
of component parts – a definite article is used.
The use
of the definite article with countable nouns.
There are some traditional cases of
the use of the definite article:
-
it is used with
reference to objects that surround the speaker. This rule can be applied only
to the limiting number of nouns:
A bee
buzzed among the flowers.
- the definite article is
used to denote object that are usually found in a particular place:
The old man
walked slowly.
The
generic function of the definite article.
A singular countable noun with a
definite article may represent a whole class of objects, becoming a composite
image of that class. A noun in this function is called a generic singular:
The cuckoo
is a lazy bird. The rose is a wonderful flower.
But sometimes the indefinite article
may be used here in its nominating function:
A rose is a
wonderful flower.
Speaking about plural form of the
nouns it should be mentioned that the zero article is used in this case:
Roses are
wonderful flowers.
The generic article is always found
with collective nouns denoting social groups and classes. Here the article
serves to emphasize the idea of collectivity.
With other nouns, the use of the generic singular is
restricted in 2 ways:
-
only a
semantically limited group of nouns appear to be used generically;
-
generic singulars
are mainly characteristic of scientific and literary prose.
The definite article is used with generic plurals but it is
found only when the idea of collectivity is definitely emphasized:
The Tories will not lift a finger to
help the workers.
But when individual representatives are meant, the article is
not used:
Italians are often good singers.
The same generic use of the definite article is found with
substantivized adjectives: the blind, the poor, the rich, the young, the old;
and with names of nationalities: the British, the French, the Japanese. But
when individual representatives are meant, a noun should be added:
The rich get richer. The old woman
was helpless.
The use of articles
with countable nouns in some syntactic patterns.
In some syntactic patterns there are
certain peculiarities in the use of articles. This refers to the use of
articles in the function of predicative or apposition:
-
nouns used
predicatively or in apposition take the indefinite article in its nominating
function. Nouns in plural have no article in this case.
-
a noun used in
apposition is used with the definite article in case when the hearer knows the
person in question.
-
nouns used
predicatively or in apposition may be used without any article in the following
cases:
1) when they denote a position which is
unique:
2) when they denote a relationship and
stress is laid on the social position of the person expressed by the subject;
3) when noun denote a certain characteristic
of a person. In this case the noun is followed by enough: She is woman
enough to understand it.
4) When predicative nouns are used in
clauses of concession with inverted word-order.
In English there are a number of
verbs which in the Active Voice require the use of nouns as objective
predicatives and in the Passive Voice – as subjective predicatives. These are
the following verbs: to appoint, to call, to choose, to elect, to fancy, to
imagine, to make, to name, to think.
When nouns denoting titles, military
ranks, social standing are followed by a proper name they are used without any
articles:
Colonel Holmes,
Doctor Smith, Sir William.
But a foreign title followed by a
proper name is used with the definite article:
The Baron
Munchausen, the Tsar Peter the Great.
The article is not used with some
nouns denoting close relationships when they are followed by names of persons:
Cousin John, Uncle
Timothy.
Other common nouns, when followed by
proper names, are used with the definite article:
the geologist
Foster, the dog Baltasar.
The article is not used with nouns in
appositive of-phrases when the head-noun denotes a title or a post:
He got the degree
of Master of Arts.
The article is not in adverbial
pattern from – to, in which the same noun is repeated after the
prepositions as in:
from tree to
tree, from street to street.
But: hand in hand, arm in arm,
shoulder to shoulder.
There is no article with nouns in
direct stress:
‘How is my wife,
doctor?’
After the exclamation what the
indefinite article is used with the nouns in singular.
The definite article is found within
an of-phrase preceded by one, some, any, each, many, most, all, several:
one of the letters, several of the boys. There is a fluctuation in the
use of the articles in the following combinations: a sort of (a) man, what sort
of (a) man, this sort of (a) man, that sort of (a) man.
The Use of Articles with Uncountable nouns.
Abstract nouns,
like concrete nouns, can be of 2 classes: countable and countable.
Countable
nouns may be used in the singular and in the plural. Uncountable
abstract nouns are used only in the singular. Sometimes it is difficult to
draw a line between countable and uncountable nouns. Some abstract nouns are
used as countables in one meaning and as uncountables in another. There are
also a number of abstract nouns which appear both as uncountables and countables
without any noticeable change of meaning:
change, difficulty, language, profit, torture, trouble etc.
Some of the
nouns that generally tend to be uncountables are in certain constructions
regularly used with the indefinite article. Here belong comfort, disgrace,
pity, pleasure, relief etc. They are found with the indefinite article when
they are used as predicatives after a formal it as a subject or after
the exclamatory what.
The use of
articles with countable abstract nouns doesn’t differ from their use
with countable concrete nouns.
Generally, uncountable
abstract nouns are used without any article. The absence of the article
performs the nominating function in this case.
The definite
article is used with uncountable nouns when they are modified by a
limiting attribute. The definite article is used here in its restricting
function to denote a particular instance for the notion expressed by the
noun. The definite article is also found with substantivized adjectives
denoting abstract notions:
the unusual, the normal, the unknown, the grotesque.
The indefinite
article is used with uncountable abstract nouns when they are modified
by a descriptive attribute which brings out a special aspect of the notion
expressed by the noun. The attribute may be expressed in different ways. The
indefinite article is used here in its aspective function. This use of
the indefinite article is typical of literary style.
Sometimes an uncountable
abstract nouns are used with an attribute but has no article. It can be
explained a) by the nature of the attribute and b) by the nature
of the noun.
a)
in some cases the attribute does not bring out a special aspect of
the notion expressed by the noun. The attribute may express degree, quality
of the noun, nationality, geography, authenticity (подлинность);
b)
some nouns are never used with the indefinite article, they are
nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, process.
Sometimes the
use of the articles with an uncountable abstract nouns is affected by the
syntactic function of the noun.
1)
Nouns in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases of manner
have no article even if they have descriptive attributes. Attributive
prepositional phrases are introduced by the preposition of. Adverbial
prepositional phrases – by the preposition with, sometimes in.
Sometimes even countable nouns have no article in these functions.
Although the
general tendency is to use abstract uncountable nouns in attributive and
adverbial prepositional phrases without articles, occasionally either the
definite or the indefinite article may be found. The use of the definite
article is generally associated with the use of limiting attributes
modifying the noun. The use of the indefinite article appears to be optional –
it may depend on the speaker’s desire to lay particular stress on the special
aspect expressed by the attribute modifying the noun. But the use of the
indefinite article is obligatory in some cases. It is always used in
prepositional phrases in which the noun is modified either by the adjectives certain,
peculiar or by an attributive clause.
2)
There is a tendency to use an uncountable abstract noun in
the function of predicative without any article even if the noun has a
descriptive attribute. Prepositional phrases in the function of a predicative
are usually set phrases:
to be in despair, to be of importance, to be out of
control, to be in a rage etc.
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