Доклад на тему: "Мотивация как психологический фактор в обучении английского языка"

Project work:

 “Motivation as physiological principle in foreign language learning”

Доклад на тему:

“Мотивация как психологический фактор в обучении иностранных языков”

INTRODUCTION

In the Message of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan it is told that “the country not able to develop knowledge in 21 century is doomed to a failure”. Nursultan Nazarbayev put big tasks of development of a modern education system and preparation of highly skilled specialists before state authorities. The reforms which have occurred in the Kazakhstan society mentioned also an education system, having concerned practically all its elements – the content of education, methods and forms of education, and etc.

The Ministry of Education and Science of RK developed the Concept of a development of education of the Republic of Kazakhstan till 2015. The Concept purpose – definition of strategic priorities in a development of education for formation of national model of the multilevel continuous education integrated into world educational space and satisfying requirements of the personality and the state.

One of the values of our country is multilingualism which assumes knowledge of the Kazakh, Russian and English languages. N. Nazarbayev in the Message to the people of Kazakhstan also noted that there should be the systematic development of languages. Therefore it is necessary to devote much attention to language teaching methodology and to arouse young people’s interest.

The theme of present diploma paper is the motivation as a psychological principle in foreign language teaching.

The topicality of the present research is determined by the tendencies of modern society development and the development of the psychological sphere in foreign language teaching. Modern society is characterized by the intensification of interest in the mastery of foreign languages.

Motivation is the one of the characteristics of the language learning, and it is a helpful facilitator in the language learning process.

Motivation is an internal drive that encourages somebody to pursue a course of action. It is a social-psychological factor which strongly influences the process of a learner’s second language acquisition. In second language learning motivation plays a very important role.

The hypothesis of this research consists in the fact that the motivation is effective means of education.

The aim of this diploma is to investigate psychological conditions of the motivation formation in the language learning process.

To achieve this aim we have set the following objectives:

-      to analyze the connection between motivation and education;

-      to examine psychological conditions of the motivation formation;

-      to investigate the efficiency of using motivation in foreign language teaching;

-      to present some proposals for using motivation resources in the classroom.

The object of the research is the conditions for development psychological teaching process in the foreign language teaching. 

The subject of the research is the motivation as a psychological principle in foreign teaching process.

To perform this research we used the following methods: the method of analysis, a descriptive method, the method of observation.

The theoretical value of the present research is to systematize the theoretical material about motivation theories and about motivation as psychological principle in language teaching process, taking into account all types of motivation.

The practical value of this diploma paper is revealed in creating the possibility to use the results of the work and materials in the practice of teaching English in modern school.

1 MOTIVATION AS A TERM IN THE SCEINCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 Motivation in pedagogical process

The term motivation originated from the Latin word “moveo-movere” the meaning of which is “to move” in English. In psychology, the term is understood as forces that move our behavior or the sources, reasons of our behavior. The exact meaning of the word motivation among psychologists is not the same up to this day. The term is very wide, it includes such notions as longing, push, volition, wish, pressure, interest, aim, purpose, etc [34, p. 132].

D.Nunan stated that “motivation” is the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

It involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term “motivation” is frequently used to describe why a person does something [36, p. 79]. 

M. Homola claimed that the word‚ “motivation” is the common name for all impulses that lead to behavior, or as the case may be, to certain behavior [23, p. 7].

The following definition was given by Z. Dornyei: “Motivation is a general way of referring to the antecedents (i.e. causes and origins) of action. The main question in  motivational  psychology  is,  therefore,  what  these  antecedents  are [12, p. 6]. “Because human behavior has 2 basic dimensions – direction and magnitude (intensity) – motivation by definition concerns both of these. It is responsible for the choice of a particular action and the effort expended on it and the persistence with it. Therefore, motivation explains why people decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long they are willing to sustain the activity” [12, p. 26]. From observation of real situations one can see that people behave equally in different situations and differently in the identical situations. Therefore, it is possible to say that the cause of dissimilarities are certain motives which can be different at various people and can also change even with one person. A man is not usually motivated by only one motive but by the complex of motives that influence also one another and at the same time they are connected with one another.

To sum up things mentioned above, it would be useful to clarify the difference between the two terms: motive and motivation. Motives are dispositions, whereas motivation is a process that is possible only by the relationship between a disposition and a situation with an impulse. Motivation leads an organism to an activity in which it would be able to behave in a certain way.

1.1.1 Sources and types of motivation

Motives are inner reasons for a certain activity or behavior. They can be divided as the conscious and unconscious ones. Motives can be also classified according to their stability, extent, origin, etc. Conscious motives are those motives with which a man is aware of how he acts and why he acts in this particular way – he knows the motive. Sometimes, however, a man does not know about the sources of his behavior. In fact, people realize only dominant motives and they cannot be aware of all motives that appear in the particular moment [51].

According to Evžen Řehulka we can distinguish four basic sources of motivation: needs, interests, ideals and values [39, p. 8].  “Needs can be understood as perceived lack or excess of something that is important for the life of an individual”. The author distinguishes basic biological needs, social needs and other types of needs that are hierarchically arranged from the lowest ones to the highest ones. The upper motives are activated only after the lower ones are satisfied. This theory was originally announced by the psychologist A. Maslow.

Interests are defined by Řehulka as “lasting positive relation of a man to a certain area of things or activities… Interests are very strong kind of motives and they activate a man very much”.  Ideals, as Řehulka suggests, can be understood as exemplary samples. These can be personalities of other people and their behavior, thoughts, “they express a moral profile of a man”.

Values can express a man’s opinion about what is good and what is not. “A value is always a character of a thing, phenomenon, being, situation or activity in connection with fulfilling of motivational factors (interests, needs) of an individuality”.

Motivation is a psychological phenomenon that relates between an active subject and an objective reality. As J. Linhart asserts, motivation of behavior of a man and his activity has two sources: subjective, that develops on basis of his needs and objective, which is determined by an objective reality and things that are important for the subject in this situation. These sources can be called also primary (internal) and secondary (external) motivation [32, p. 73-75].

Primary motivation is connected to instincts and living needs, e.g. neural activity, biological needs, social needs, etc. Secondary motivation is not fulfilling of needs: a person is stimulated to the activity because they want to reach something that is connected with this situation externally. J. Linhart says: “The activity itself is not the aim, but the means for achieving different aims”.

It is also possible to describe motivation as the positive and negative one. Positive motivation can be defined as an effort to attain something. It creates the inner interest and it is connected with a kind of reward, which is just the demanded thing. This kind of motivation is very effective, but if the impact of rewards is overused, it loses its motivated effect.

The origin of the negative motivation is usually something unpleasant, e.g. psychic stress. A man tries to escape from the unwelcome impulse, for example if a radio plays very loudly, he turns it down. If there is no possibility to get rid of the unpleasant impetus, it can be a punishment. That is another eventuality of motivation, but it does not allow the development of a personality if used very often. Another kind of motivation is social motivation. A person behaves as a member of a certain group. Feelings of duty, responsible fulfillment of tasks and achievement of aims are also samples of this type of motivation. Social motivation has great significance in lives of people. These motives are learnt, acquired, secondary, but their intensity is equal to the biological needs [47].

a)            Integrative motivation

Integrative motivation occurs when the learner has “the desire to identify with and integrate into the target language culture” [42, p. 276]. P. Ur sharing the same point of view as Falk who states that students with integrative motivation are those who like the people that speak the target language, admire the culture and have a desire to become familiar with or even integrate into the society in which the target language is used [15, p. 93]. When someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions, integrative motivation is a key component in assisting the learner to develop some levels of proficiency in the language. It becomes a necessity in order to operate socially in the community and become one of its members. It is also theorized that “integrative motivation typically underlines successful acquisition of a wide range of registers and a nativelike pronunciation and an integrative orientation involves an interest in learning an L2 because of  a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group” [16, p. 586].

b)           Instrumental motivation

People have many different reasons for studying a foreign language; sometimes people study a language for practical reasons while other times people have a special affinity for the particular language and its people. Language teachers are often very aware of the career advantages that language proficiency can bring, but to many language learners, studying the language is only an abstract undertaking required for an academic degree [48].

Since the seminal work of Gardner and Lambert in 1972, language teachers and researchers have recognized the important role that motivation plays in language learning. Gardner and Lambert are responsible for proposing the most commonly used framework for understanding the different motivations that language learners typically have. They distinguish two types of language learning motivation: instrumental motivation and integrative motivation [19, p. 57].

Learners with an instrumental motivation want to learn a language because of a practical reason such as getting a salary bonus or getting into college. Many college language learners have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement! Integratively motivated learners want to learn the language so that they can better understand and get to know the people who speak that language. In the North American context, integrative motivation has proven to be a strong impetus to successful language learning.

The new language teachers in this video clip discuss their own and their students’ instrumental motivations for language learning. The motivations described here range from using the language to study philosophy to imagining a career in beer production. In addition to having different reasons for language learning, some of the learners described here are more strongly motivated than others.

While both integrative and instrumental motivations are essential elements of success, it is integrative motivation which has been found to sustain long-term success when learning a second language [14, p. 26]. Those who do support an integrative approach to language study are usually more highly motivated and overall more successful in language learning. However, it has been found that generally students select instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of language.

One area where instrumental motivation can prove to be successful is in the situation where the learner is provided with no opportunity to use the target language and therefore, no chance to interact with members of the target group. M. Lukmani found that an instrumental orientation was more important than an integrative orientation in non- westernized female learners of L2 English [14, p. 67]. Therefore, “a learner with instrumental motivation is more interested in how the language can be a useful instrument towards furthering other goals, such as gaining a necessary qualification or improving employment prospects” [33, p. 45].

Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation, generally, refers to the fact of doing an activity for itself, pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation. Contrary to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation pertains to a wide variety of behaviors that are engaged in as a means to an end and not for their own sake [10, p. 36]. R. Schulz said that the concept of extrinsic motivation referred to the extent to which the learning environment (i.e. the teacher, materials, curriculum, learning tasks etc.) contributed to or detracted from intrinsic motivation of the learner to acquire a language [41, p. 18].

Intrinsic motivation is possessed by people having personal interest in doing something and helping to set their goals. People are intrinsically motivated not because accomplishing the activity they do to bring a reward, but because doing the activity itself is a reward.

Some linguistics noted that a student with intrinsic motivation participated in his/ her learning for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provided, the learning it permitted, or the feelings of accomplishment it evoked. The feelings of competence and self- determination are significant factors of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, derives from an anticipation of rewards such as praise, awards, prizes, evaluation and fear for punishment.

An extrinsically motivated student does the activity in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself, and this kind of motivation refers to learning situations where the reason for doing a task is something other than an interest in the task itself.

In addition, undertaking the task may be something the person feels pressured to do rather than genuinely wants to do. E. Deci and R. Ryan state that learners will lose motivation and reason to do something when rewards are no longer available and that giving external rewards to them previously with intrinsic motivation can harm the good effect of it. However, some researchers show that extrinsic motivation is effective for those with no motivation, and when it is a positive feedback [10, p. 38].

In short, it becomes clear that intrinsic motivation produces more potential benefits than the extrinsic. Intrinsically motivated students tend to try harder and think more deeply than extrinsically motivated ones.

c)            Resultative motivation

In some cases, motivation is the result of learning. It is success that contributes to motivation rather than vice- versa.

R.Ellis also concluded that “the relationship between motivation and achievement is an interactive one. A high level of motivation does stimulate learning, but perceived success in achieving L2 goals can help to maintain existing motivation and even create new types. Conversely, a vicious circle of low motivation=low achievement=low motivation can develop” [14, p. 37].

1.2 Factors and conditions affecting motivation in FLT

Z. Dornyei analyzed L2 learning motivation within a framework of three levels, which offers a vast list of motivational components:

a)            Language level involves factors related to the L2 such as the culture, the community as well as practical values and benefits connected with learning L2.

b)           The learner level involves individual characteristics that the learner brings to the learning process. These characteristics include learners’ self- confidence, self- efficacy, need for achievements, causal attributions, the perceived L2 competences, and goal orientations and so forth.

c)            Learning situation level is associated with situation- specific motives of L2 learning within a classroom and it is divided into three aspects. The first is course- specific motivational components which are related to the syllabus, the teaching materials, the teaching method and the learning tasks.

The second is teacher- specific motivational components which concern the motivational impact of the teacher’s personality, behavior and teaching style. And the third is group- specific motivational components which are related to the group dynamics of the learner group [11, p.112].

M. Williams and R. Burden analyzed L2 learning motivation in a framework of two factors: internal and external. Internal factors encompass various components such as intrinsic interest of activity, perceived value of activity, sense of agency, mastery, self-concept, attitudes, developmental age, stage and gender and other affective states (confidence, anxiety, fear).

External factors include significant others (parents, teachers and peers); the nature of interaction with significant others (mediated learning experiences, the nature and amount of feedback rewards, the nature and amount of  appropriate praise, punishments and sanctions); the learning environment (sense of comfort, resources, time of day, week, size of class and school, class) and the broader context (which includes wider and family networks, local education system, conflicting interests, cultural norms and societal expectations and  attitudes)  [11, p.114].

There have been some studies on the factors affecting students’ motivation in learning a foreign language so far. Above are two L2 motivation frameworks that refer to some factors such as language level, learner level, learning situation level and internal and external factors [12, p. 35]. Although researchers have had some different views in this issue, they all have come to an agreement with a list of common factors affecting students’ motivation. These factors can be divided into three groups: teacher’s factors, students’ factors and learning condition factors.

a)            Students’ factors

The first factors are students’ intelligence and aptitude. Intelligence, according to M. Lightbown and N. Spada, refers to “performance on certain kinds of test’ and aptitude is something which ‘involves both underlying language learning capacity and a capacity to handle decontextualized language” [31, p. 52]. They also point out that language aptitude is usually described as a combination of four factors:  the ability to identify and memorize new sounds, the ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences, the ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples and the ability to memorize new words [31, p. 53].

The second is students’ personality. In the eyes of many language teachers, the personality of the students constitutes a major factor contributing to success or failure in language learning. R.Ellis has proved that extroverted learners are advantaged in the development of the kind of language associated with basis interpersonal communication skills and that extroverted learners may also be more likely to participate actively in oral communication [14, p. 523]. 

Shared the same view with R.Ellis, M.Lightbown and N.Spada list a number of personality characteristics that have a great influence on the success of second language learners: extroversion, inhibition, self-esteem, empathy, dominance, talkativeness and responsiveness.

The third factor is learners’ age. Children are believed to be better than adults in acquiring an L2 in general and in speaking a new language with native- like fluency in particular. Some researchers argued that late starters may be able to learn the syntax and the vocabulary of a second language, but that attaining a native-like pronunciation is impossible for them. Also, they concluded that younger learners have a greater chance of attaining native-like proficiency in the L2, older learners may show faster progress at the beginning, but are probably surpassed by the young ones in the end.

The fourth factor is learning style. The term “learning style” refers to the characteristic ways in which individuals orientates to problem- solving. Keefe defined learning style as “he characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment… Learning style is a consistent way of functioning that reflects underlying causes of behavior” [14, p. 499].

The last factor is learners’ belief. Most learners have strong beliefs about how languages are learnt, how their instruction should be delivered. Little, D.Singleton and W.Silvius found out “past experience, both of education in general and of language learning in particular, played a major role in shaping attitudes to language learning” [14, p. 478-479].

b)           Teacher’s factors

Teacher plays an important role in students’ learning motivation. As a matter of fact, some teacher’s factors and appropriate teacher behaviors will increase students to motivate in learning.

Z. Dornyei pointed out some teacher’s factors affecting students’ motivation: appropriate teacher behavior, teacher’s enthusiasm and a good relationship with the students [11, p. 119].

Firstly, appropriate teacher behavior in classroom is very important. It is considered a powerful “motivational tool”. J. Arnold stated that teacher’s behavior could “persuade”  or “attract”  students to engage in on-task behaviors. “The teacher should be a patient, encouraging person who supports students’ learning efforts. Students should feel comfortable taking intellectual risks because they know that they will not be embarrassed or criticized if they make a mistake” [1, p. 95].

Secondly, teacher’s good relationship with the student is also a key element of motivation in student learning. The teacher should establish the relationship of mutual trust and respect with students. This relationship also involves finding opportunities to talk with them on a personal level and letting them know that teachers  have  thought  about them  and that  their  individual effort is recognized [11, p. 120].

The third factor is teacher’s enthusiasm. M. Csikzentmihalyi  said that teachers needed to be “enthused and involved in the teaching process and in the material they are teaching”. He also points out that enthusiastic teachers are the ones who love what they are doing, who show by their dedication and their passion that make students willing to pursue knowledge [11, p. 177-178].

The last factor is teacher’s commitment to the students’ academic progress. Teachers should care for what their students have learnt and succeeded. They should also offer concrete assistant, responding immediately when help is requested, correcting tests, arranging extra- assignments and so on.

In short, teacher’s attitude, behavior as well as the general level of their commitment towards the students, their learning and their subject matter, constitute some of the most prevailing influences on student motivation. Z. Dornyei says that “teachers are the designated leaders of the class group” and therefore, they cannot lack their responsibility for maintaining their own commitment to the teaching process because the lack of this responsibility will cause “psychological absence” from teaching process, which is the fastest way to undermine the motivational base of the learners.

Teaching and learning condition involves classroom atmosphere and physical condition.  A pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere will create motivation; it encourages students to express their opinions and thinking. Students’ anxiety created by a tense classroom climate was one of the most potent factors that undermined learning effectiveness and L2 motivation [11, p. 180].

Physical conditions are important, too. Physical conditions refer to something in classroom such as classroom’s size, classroom’s facilities (chairs, desks, tables, electric facilities). Hammer stated that physical conditions had great impact on students’ learning as well as their attitude towards the subject matter. Physical condition affects both teacher and students’ motivation. The large class, the poor facilities will decrease the relationship between teacher and students, and as a result, will decrease motivation [21, p. 78].

1.3 Historical changes in understanding motivation as psychological  principle

In various periods of last century, motivation was understood in many ways. The aim of this chapter is to offer an overview of the most significant theories.

In the first half of the 20th century, it was believed that motivation is determined by basic human instincts and drives and that many of these are unconscious or repressed. Typical performer of this theory was the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud. He thought that these unconscious motives do not strongly influence motivational thinking, they, however, play a significant role in lives of people and it is possible to rediscover them [25, p. 66].

In the 50s of the last century, behaviorist psychology came up with researches focusing on how stimuli and responses interplay in forming habits. On this base also some methodologies were created, such as audio – lingual method for language learning, which is still used in many parts of the world. This method uses the constant drilling of the students that is followed by either positive or negative reinforcement [8, p. 140]. Performers of these conditioning theories are for example psychologists Raynor, Watson, Skinner.

In 1970 another theory appeared. It was performed by humanistic psychologists as Abraham Maslow or Carl Rogers. They propounded that the central motivating force in people’s lives is the self-actualizing tendency that people desire to achieve a personal growth [24, p. 89].

Today cognitive view is performed. This theory says that people’s behavior is influenced by the individual’s conscious attitudes, values, beliefs and interpretations of events. Teachers should be aware of all motivational theories so that they could influence their students’ learning. This work is based on the modern cognitive view, and in next chapters it is going to describe the possibilities how to motivate learners of English, how to influence their attitudes, beliefs and interpretations so that their motivation could arouse and increase [9, p. 54].

Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert conducted one of the best-known and historically significant studies of motivation in the second language learning. Over a period of 12 years they extensively studied foreign Language Learners in Canada, several parts of the United States, and the Philippines in an effort to determine how attitudinal and motivational factors affect the Language Learning success. Motivation was examined as a factor of a number of different kinds of attitudes.

Two different clusters of attitudes divided two basic types of what Gardner and Lambert at that time identified as “instrumental” and “integrative” motivation [31, p. 52].The instrumental side referred to acquiring a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals: furthering a career, reading technical material, translation, and so forth. The integrative side described learners who wished to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language group and become involved in social interchange in that group. Instrumental motivation is language learning for more immediate or practical goals.

Integrative motivation is language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Research has shown that these types of motivation are related to success in second language learning, but the distinction is not always as clear as it was in the research context in which the contrast was first described. In some learning environment, it is difficult to distinguish between these two types of orientation to the target language and its community. Furthermore, early research on motivation tended to conceptualize it as a stable characteristic of the learner [35, p. 53].

Scientists define “motivation” as an affective factor alongside “culture shock”. R. Gardner and W. Lambert define “motivation” in terms of the L2 learner’s overall goal or orientation. According to R. Gardner motivation involves four aspects:

a)            goal;

b)           effortful behavior;

c)            a desire to attain the goal;

d)           favorable attitude towards the learning activity.

Different researchers have reached different conclusions about hypothesized co-relations  between  motivation and learning depending upon the  learner context [18, p. 57].

According to R. Gardner and W. Lambert an instrumentally oriented learner can be as intensively motivated as an integratively oriented one; however they hypothesized that the latter orientation would be better in the long run for sustaining the drive necessary to master the L2.This hypothesis was borne out in their early studies in Canada and in certain contexts in the U.S.A. Researchers have shown that in certain situation an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitating successful second language learning. But in other situations instrumental motivation may be more effective indicator of success [46].

The contradictory findings of the different studies of the researchers do not, however, lessen the importance of the integrative and instrumental construct. Rather these investigations show that there is no single motivational reason for learning a second language. It points out that learners in some context are successful in learning a language if they are integratively motivated.

Moreover, researchers like D. Brown points out that the two types of motivation are not mutually exclusive. Although there are situations where second language learners have become successful language learners by exclusively one orientation, in most situation learners are found to have a mixture of each type of motivation. D. Brown gives example of Chinese students living in the U.S who learn English for  both academic  purpose and for integrating with the  American culture [5, p. 34].

Ely mentioned that although the concept of integrative and instrumental motivation was valuable for creating interest among researchers to investigate the role of motivation in second language learning, he also pointed that there are several problems with viewpoint. He further argues that it is difficult to differentiate between integrative and instrumental motivation.

He also mentioned that the investigators faced difficulty to distinguish between “integrativit” and “instrumentally” while they carried out their research on Hispanic students learning Spanish at South Western University and students of junior high school learning Hebrew in Toronto. In both cases investigators found that “integrative motivation (a desire to affiliate with the L2 community) underlay apparent instrumentality (an interest in future occupational uses of the language)”.

Ely’s empirical research on students learning Spanish in a University of northern California found three motivational clusters. The first two clusters represented integrative and instrumental motivation and the third cluster represented second language learning to fulfill a language requirement in the university. His research demonstrates that fulfilling language learning just for academic requirement can motivate a student to learn a language.

T. Hedge pointed out that self-identity and positive attitude motivate a child to learn its first language. He argued that just as the child learns its first language in order to identify with its parents; in the same way a second language learner may be motivated to learn the second language in order to identify with the target language community. Based on this view of Hedge, R. Gardner pointed out that an individual with an integrative motivation is more likely to learn the second language successfully [22, p. 89].

In contrast to R. Gardner findings, M. Lukmani in her research found that instrumental motivation is more important than integrative motivation for marathi speaking high school student who are learning English in India [5, p. 36]. He also points that India is one example where it is not uncommon for second language learners to be successful with instrumental orientation. Again Oiler’s research on Mexican-Americans learning English as a second language showed that learners with an instrumental orientation achieved highest score on the proficiency test, although they have no desire to integrate with the Anglo-American population [54].

M. Lukmani investigated the relationships between the English proficiency of Marathi-speaking high school students in India and their  motivational orientation,  M. Lukmani found that those students with instrumental motivation outperformed those with integrative motivation on a test of English language proficiency [53].

A second broad class of motivation theories includes instrumentality theories, which suggest that individuals engage in activities instrumental in achieving some valued outcome. Instrumentality theories are not closely related to Gardner’s concept of instrumental motivation but are more elaborated and generalized.

Instrumentality theories emphasize cognition and the process by which an individual answers the question, “Should I expend the energy or not?” Unlike the need theories that create tension, instrumentality theories focus on the individual’s expectation of receiving a valued reward. Thus they are sometimes called “expectancy-value” theories. Also unlike need theories, which are sometimes very specific about their hierarchical nature and the means used to satisfy identified needs, instrumentality theories are rather vague about the nature of these rewards [53].

Summary of part 1

Motivation is based on the main tenet that students’ attitudes toward the specific language group are bound to influence how successful they will be in incorporating aspects of that language. Motivation is probably the most frequently used catch-all term for explaining the success or failure of any complex task. So learning a foreign Language requires different levels of motivation. Motivation and attitudes are important factors determining the level of proficiency achieved by different learners. The most successful learners will be those who have both talent and a high level of motivation to learn.

In the first part was written that the most popular types of motivations are integrative, instrumental, intrinsic, extrinsic, resultative. Motivation depends on students' factors: their intelligence and aptitude, personality, age, learning style, beliefs. Also teachers play great role in students’ motivation in foreign language learning. The main teachers' factors are appropriate teacher's behavior in classroom, teacher's relationship with students, teacher's enthusiasm, teacher's commitment, teacher's aptitude and physical conditions.

2. MOTIVATION IN PEDAGOGY WITH EMPHASIS ON ENGLISH TEACHING

2.1 Motivation in pedagogical process

Motivation is an engine, regulator and inseparable component of learning. It is a necessary condition of the educational process. When starting learning at school, a life of a child completely changes. They compare their abilities with others and on this base they create their personal goals and values. Their motives have crucial importance for their performance at school. A child has to choose among fulfilling different motives, e.g. agreement of a class versus fulfillment of teachers’ expectations. Teachers should be able to create very positive atmosphere at school so that there would be as few such conflicts as possible [4, p. 122].

Besides, this motivation on emotional level, teachers have to motivate students also on various other levels. Assessment and feedback are one of them, and it is very important, because it helps pupils to create an idea about themselves and thus it participates on the development of a pupil‘s motivational system. If a child has a positive attitude to himself, it is a great motivational factor, so teachers should help to create such an attitude. Learners must not be assessed according to inappropriate criterions. Making mistakes is normal when learning anything and it is significant to teach students to work with a mistake.

Learners are always somehow motivated to their schoolwork, but these motives can be very different. Among the essential motives belong these: effort to achieve agreement of parents, of teachers, of friends in a class, or it can be just pleasure from learning.

Motivation cannot be created, but it is possible to affect various conditions and with help of them to awake various motives. The pupil’s activity should not be forced, but aroused. Teachers can affect the pupil’s motivation by their personalities, behavior, materials used in lessons, relationships to their students and atmosphere they are able to create in classes. The work at school should be meaningful and lead to marked out aims. Learners should be led to the achievement of these aims and they should be also informed about their progress in gaining the objectives. The attaining of a goal has a strong motivational power, so the goal should always be attainable and realistic [55].

Among the most important motivational strategies belong a reward and punishment. Psychologists agree that rewards are more effective than punishments. Both of them are used in lessons in forms of praise and rebuke. I agree with the opinion that neither rewards nor punishment should be overused, otherwise it loses its motivational power.

Without doubt, the role of a teacher is very complicated in the area of motivation. They should be able to find the balance to prevent frustration or boredom. It is difficult to arouse the interest about the subject matter, so lessons should be dynamic to be able to compete with activities that are more attractive for students. In every case, it is important to arouse permanent motivation, help learners to form their personalities and at the same time to be the personality that pupils could identify with.

Z. Dörnyei states that under the term “motivated learner” people imagine enthusiastic, eager, hard-working student who is always involved in activities and who is aware of reasons for his learning. If a pupil makes great progress, one could say that he is certainly highly motivated and vica versa, if a learner is not successful, many people are likely to say that it is because of his lack of motivation. Teachers should, however, look deeper in the situation. There are many possible factors that can play a role in the student’s failure.

When a child starts going to school, he himself is motivated by his own curiosity and enjoyment from the learning process. After some time at school, this eagerness very often disappears. As also Z. Dörnyei claims, this is partially because children are very energetic and the educational systems do not allow sufficiency of movement, interesting things or challenging activities, pupils are monitored and assessed all the time [12, p. 50]. Curriculum must be taught and there is little space for anything else. I argue that teachers, however, still have possibilities how to adapt the learning situation to the needs of their students so that their natural curiosity and enjoyment from learning could be maintained.

The first area to be described is the situation in the classroom and the enthusiasm for the subject matter. Learners need to have suitable conditions for their effective learning. Then, teachers have to make their lessons interesting, challenging, active, encouraging, with the element of surprise. Lastly, students need to be supported, assessed, encouraged, they need to feel the sense of their effort.

The most difficult thing on motivating someone is that the process cannot be stopped. Motivation can be aroused, can increase, but it can also decline or disappear. Z. Dörnyei says that motivation fluctuates, changes over the time. I agree that teachers have to understand this to be able to arrange learning as well as motivational activities in balance [12].

2.2 Motivational conditions in a learning process in the 10-11^th grade

As was said before, when students have suitable conditions for their learning, it is likely that their motivation can generate. Z. Dörnyei asserts that these items belong among the basic motivational factors when generating the students’ positive attitudes to the subject matter and learning: appropriate teacher behaviors and a good relationship with the learners a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in lessons a cohesive learner group with appropriate group norms.

The teacher’s behavior is probably the most important and it is also the only thing that the teacher can influence himself. Under the term “appropriate teacher’s behavior” Z. Dörnyei understands these things: enthusiasm for the subject; good relationship with learners and their parents; expectations of students’ success.

Teachers who are really enthusiastic for their subject can affect their students’ attitude to learning it. English teachers that show their interest in the language, emphasize advantages of knowledge of it, bring plenty of authentic material, understand the culture of the English-speaking countries and talk about them willingly, teachers who love English indeed, certainly influence their students so that they could see the usefulness of learning the language. Such teachers manage to induce the willingness to learn. Pupils can see if their teachers do only their work or if they take teaching the subject as their vocation, the vocation to share their own knowledge and enthusiasm [12].

An enthusiastic, professional teacher wants his/her students to be successful in the subject s/he teaches. S/he is willing to try hard, explain and practice everything properly and in an interesting way, to check tests and papers as soon as possible, s/he offers help  where needed, encourages students’ creativity. Pupils that know their teacher cares are likely to work hard as well, and vice versa, if they feel that teacher is not interested in their effort, their motivation would probably go down. Z. Dörnyei supports this thought: “If students can sense that the teacher doesn’t care … this perception is the fastest way to undermine their motivation.” J. Broophy adds: “To the extent you treat students as if they already are eager learners, they are more likely to become eager learners. Let them know that they are expected to be curious” [3, p. 25].

Good relationship with students, however, does not depend only on teachers’ enthusiasm and hard work. Humour, personal attitude to their needs and difficulties, interest in their hobbies, etc. play also a very important role. Learning should not be cut off from learners’ real lives.

According to Z. Dörnyei, for developing a warm, personal relationship with students, teachers should accept their learners’ personalities, be able to listen and pay attention to them, i.e. greet them, remember their names, smile, notice changes as their haircut or clothes, etc. Teachers should also be available for personal contact with pupils. I acquiesce this opinion. “Building trust in a classroom is a slow process and results from many small incidents in which the teacher has responded honestly and dependably” [38, p. 145-146].

Z. Dörnyei also supports my idea that a very significant factor in motivating students is the teacher’s relationship with their parents. They are undoubtedly very influential. They should be always well informed about their child’s progress as well about the importance of the subject. If parents have negative attitude to the subject or if they are unconcerned, their view can be shifted to their children. It is advantageous to have parents on the teacher’s side [12, p. 23].

Expecting students’ success is another motivational strategy. If students feel that a teacher believes in their abilities and anticipates good results, their self-assurance and determination are likely to increase. Also Z. Dörnyei states this: “if you yourself believe that your students can reach high levels of achievement, there is a good chance that they will too. However, if you have low expectations about how much your students can cope with, they will probably “live down” to these expectations”.       

Appropriate teacher behavior is tightly connected with a relaxed and encouraging atmosphere in a class. In English lessons, learners have to be aware of their grammar, pronunciation and content at the same time and they can feel anxious because of possibility of making mistakes. Especially teenagers could take mistakes very seriously as something that could endanger their social position in a class, they feel they could be embarrassed or criticized if they make one. We fully agree with Z. Dörnyei who declares: “Language learning is one of the most face-threatening school subjects because of the pressure of having to operate using a rather limited language code. Learners are forced to babble like a child which might just be the last straw for some whose personal identity is already unstable or damaged” [12, p. 40]

A teacher has to ensure the learners that making mistakes is absolutely normal when anybody learns. No one in the class should be allowed to laugh to anyone’s mistakes, and students should be tolerant to each other. People have been learning from their mistakes for centuries. In lessons, a teacher should support humour to reduce anxiety so that students could feel easy.

A teacher, however, is not the only factor that can cause or remove stress in a class. There are two more aspects of pleasant atmosphere of a class: the physical environment and the team itself. A group of learners is a social unit that has an enormous influence on its members. There is not much that a teacher can do about it, but s/he can always help to create cohesiveness of a group, i.e. feeling of unity of its members by things such as group work where students have to work to achieve the common goal, arranging

Extracurricular activities for the whole group, etc. Z. Dörnyei suggests that these factors have an impact on the cohesiveness of a class:

a)            time shared together;

b)           knowledge about each other;

c)            contact;

d)           cooperation;

e)            intragroup competition;

f)             group legends.

Teachers can influence all these factors in their lessons. Considering English teaching, we suggest that a teacher can choose activities where students would learn about each other and share their personal information. Their contact and collaboration could be increased by pair work, group work, project work, problem-solving, or by sitting at different places in the classroom during the school year.

For intragroup competitions teachers can integrate various funny activities and games. Group legends could be created by sharing certain rituals, such as beginning or ending classes, developing group norms, etc.

Group norms can increase discipline in a class. The rules should be discussed and clearly understood by everyone. Norms can be something like a contract between a teacher and students, giving some obligations to both sides. Less, but still important, is the physical environment in the classroom.

Any classroom can help to create a congenial atmosphere. Students should be allowed to personalize it in every possible way. They should feel responsibility for their environment. Teachers can manage to cause these feelings by giving students right to decorate walls and noticeboards or to have furniture arranged according to their needs and wishes [12, p. 45].

By appropriate behavior and creating supportive and safe atmosphere in lessons teachers can induce the motivational ambience in their students. Only after they feel safe and easy, only after they like the teacher and the subject, they are willing to work hard and it means they are motivated.

2.3 Preserving and sustaining students’ motivation as psychological unit in English lessons

To motivate students for learning English, the teacher’s enthusiasm is not enough. Another very important thing is the learner’s first encounter with the language. This should be as positive as possible, because it will strongly influence the pupil’s relationship to the subject. Except of this, students should be encouraged to view learning English as something valuable and they can be motivated to learning if they are aware of advantages that the knowledge of English could bring. For younger students, this advantage can be for example understanding messages in various computer games, for the older ones possibilities of doing various hobbies, reading English books or possibility to get a good job would be tempting.

When learners have a positive attitude to the English learning, teachers should make learning enjoyable. Particularly for young children and teenagers, learning should not be hard work. Though some people including me could agree with Covington and Teel  who say that we, teachers, are not in the entertainment business and cannot be expected to turn everything into fun, there are still things teachers can do to make the learning process more entertaining. Z. Dörnyei offers these: breaking the monotony of learning; making tasks more interesting; involving students.

In all school subjects there is a danger of routine activities or even routine structure of all lessons. Even the most perfect lesson plan cannot be copied again and again. For teachers, it is sometimes quite difficult to think up new activities, but they should bring some innovations from time to time. In English teaching, there are many language and methodological areas that teachers can move on. Some lessons can be focused on grammar, some on vocabulary or cultural items, students can practice different language skills and sub-skills, they can work individually, in pairs, groups or as a whole class, teachers can teach either inductively or deductively, students can do various projects, they can also bring some activities to the lessons, lessons can variate in rhythm [12, p. 73].

As Z. Dörnyei hit, these all are “cooking ingredients’ and teachers should make sure that they do not “serve exactly the same meal every day”. The author also suggests that teachers should do occasionally the unexpected. I absolutely agree that the element of surprise, something new is important for maintaining the motivation.

The activities even when exercising the same skill may vary a lot: teachers can change topics, arrange entertaining competitions, they can involve pupils’ imagination and creativity, they can think up some challenging activities, integrate working with computers, authentic literature, data projectors, videos, students can work on projects, they can become active participants of the lesson. The possibilities are almost infinite.

Active participation of learners, if successful, dramatically increases their motivation to learn. The teachers’ task is to think up the suitable activities that would enable students’ willing and voluntary involvement. There are many topics that pupils are interested in and teachers should make use of these interests. A very good idea is from time to time to integrate project work, let students bring their ideas into the lessons, or try lessons according to Dalton example.

2.4 Self-confidence, cooperation as motivational factors in educational process for 11^th grade students

For pupils the school represents primarily a social arena, not the scene of academic work. They are there because they have to and are more interested in issues such as love, personal image than the mastery of school subjects.

Making students understand why they should learn is important, but this knowledge motivates them only for a short period of time. To maintain the motivation, teachers should lead learners to assign certain goals for the learning process. These goals can be divided into four types: individual and common, short-term and long-term ones.

Long-term goals determine the general purpose of the learning. In English, these can be to communicate effectively with English speakers, to be able to read books and magazines in English, to be able to understand films and programmes in English, etc [12, p.61].

Students want all these things, but they very often have not got their volition enough to spend much effort for a long period of time.

To keep their motivation, learners need short-term goals. These can cut learning into pieces that are achievable: learning 5 new words every day, to be able to answer the question about what time it is in a week, or being able to write a letter to a pen friend in a month. If people have such obtainable goals set and if they expect they could be successful in their fulfillment, it is possible to say that they are motivated.

Both long-term and short-term goals can be individual or common for a group of learners. An individual person can set their own long-term goals about what they want to achieve by learning the language, and short-term goals that determine what they would do for their accomplishment.

Individuals in a learning group should have some common goals, too. These should be clear for everyone. Such a long-term goal for a team could be for example mastering of past tenses and certain vocabulary by the end of a course. Their short-term goal may be mastering one unit every month.

Common goals can be related with group norms. These norms can be created by the whole class together with a teacher. A very good idea of Z. Dörnyei is to let each person individually write their expectations of a teacher and of pupils. Then these expectations could be discussed in pairs, then in groups of four, of eight, etc. and in the end the whole class would go through all ideas. The accredit ones become norms, rules of the group that should not be broken by anyone. Rules for pupils can be e.g.: doing homework regularly and properly, having things for lessons ready, etc. The teacher’s obligation can be perhaps having tests from the previous lesson checked by the following one, giving advance notice of tests, and so on. The group norms, together with goals, should be displayed in the classroom.

For preservation the motivation it is good sometimes to draw attention to the class goals and look if the progress towards them was made, because they can also play roles of standards by which students can evaluate their own performance.

Learners’ can also create their portfolios from their individual goals. Teachers should show them how to cut a long-term goal into series of steps. The steps should be written and fulfillment of these steps can be marked by doing ticks or something like that.

Students need to have deadlines to each step so that they could see their progress in time. This kind of logbook, this portfolio, can act as a suitable motivational factor even with students who have not any general goals or who are demotivated. The best for maintenance of the pupils’ motivation is the teacher’s feedback that should increase the learner’s confidence in achieving goals.

According to Z. Dörnyei goals should be: clear and specific; measurable, i.e. they should be clearly evaluated; challenging and difficult, but not outside the range of students’ capabilities; realistic; they should have a stated completion date.

He formulated “ABCD” of goals that should be: achievable, i.e. reasonable for the learner’s age strengths; believable; conceivable, i.e. clearly stated and measurable; desirable [12, p. 64].

Things flourish when people believe that they can do them. Similarly, in learning everything goes better if students believe they can learn the subject. This is tightly connected with self-confidence, self-esteem and one’s determination. Teachers have possibilities how to put learners in the optimistic mood by encouraging them, reducing language anxiety and by providing them with the experience of success [29].

A very dangerous thing that teachers have to face is fears and prejudice. Students’ parents very often believe in things such as: if their children have not inborn ability for learning languages, they cannot master them, if their child did not start learning English very early, now it is too late, etc. These beliefs are often incorrect and teachers have to persuade not only their learners, but also the parents. Each student should know that their effort is the powerful investment to their learning and that the achievement of learning goals depends just on their exertion [30].

Teachers should believe in students’ success and they have to show their beliefs to them. When pupils feel that teachers do not doubt about their abilities to do tasks successfully, they are likely to manage them. The teacher, however, can support this positive feeling by enabling the learners to be really successful. This means that s/he offers help, provides preparation for tasks, enough time, explains everything clearly and demonstrates activities to avoid misunderstandings, s/he chooses tasks of appropriate difficulty level or s/he does not allow anybody to disturb others when working. The thing that surely should be offered, however, is teaching strategies, how to manage tasks. Teachers can demonstrate strategies that they themselves used when learning and they should encourage learners to think up their own ones that suit best to them. Knowing how to deal with tasks will help students to build their self-confidence.

The importance of self-confidence when learning was observed also by Dörnyei:“In order to be able to focus on learning with vigor and determination, they (students, the author’s note) need to have a healthy self-respect and need to believe in themselves as learners” [12, p. 8].

“Self-confidence and self-esteem are like the foundations of a building: if they are not strong enough, even the best technology will be insufficient to build solid walls over them” [2, p. 64].

Some learners have such a lack of self-confidence that they are always about to give-up tasks. Here teachers and parents have to help. The possibilities are mostly the same as in providing learners with belief in their success, because experience of success is the base stone for building self-confidence. This can be proved by observing people: those who are successful are very highly self-confident and vice versa.

Although teachers can frequently see the opposite, school children are often uncertain, full of doubts about themselves. They try to keep their faces and look confidently. Particularly teenagers try to create their new adult identity and are very much afraid of being criticized or embarrassed. Their main social area is their schoolmates and peers. Thus they sometimes do not even try to be successful so that they could excuse their possible poor results [50].

J. Raffini says: “There are few influences in a student’s life more powerful than the feeling of being rejected by others.” For this reason, it is highly important to create conditions of pleasant and supportive class and to ensure pupils that it is the safe place where their self-worth is protected [38, p.135]. Z. Dörnyei suggests some tips how to do it: “Avoid social comparison. Do not compare successful and unsuccessful students, do not public their grades. Avoid serious competitions. There are always some winners and losers”.

Promote more cooperation. Do not correct every single mistake and accept mistakes as natural concomitants of learning.  Inform about tests in advance, include clear specifications of the criteria that will be used for marking. Provide enough time during tests.  Offer options to improve the final grade. Encourage self-assessment.

 Make assessment completely transparent. Make activities socially desirable so that the participants could appear in a favorable light. Avoid putting students in the spotlight unexpectedly or without their agreement. Do not discipline students in ways that might be perceived as humiliating.” [26]

Cooperative interaction among learners is very modern in language teaching nowadays. It is believed that they are likely to have more positive attitudes towards learning when working with others. Their motivation to learn could increase, because the cooperation strengthens the group cohesiveness as well as the learners’ autonomy and reduces anxiety from failure. Apart of these, social and communicative skills can be developed [44, p. 11].

The typical example of how cooperation can be used when teaching English is project work. There are several reasons why the project learning is so successful. Students can use their knowledge, temperament, imagination and their point of view. They have to participate in the lessons, they are responsible for the results of their work. Moreover, they learn to cooperate in a group, listen to the others, think progressively, plan their work and allocate it.

It is necessary to make a choice altogether, discuss the problem and choose the best strategy to reach the goal. Then students have to divide their work, take their own role in it and the responsibility for their part of the task. They have to cooperate and this is something really important in their real future life. This cooperation is considered to be an important motivating factor. Diana Fried-Booth confirms the same: “For students, the motivation comes from within not from without [17, p. 5]. The project is theirs. They themselves decide what they will do and how they will do it and this includes not only the content of the project, but also the language requirements”.

The essential feature of project work is an end product. This can take various forms, it can be a poster display, a three-dimensional model, an exhibition, a magazine or newspaper, a report, a video or audiocassette, or an event such as a party or a show. It is very motivating for students to have something meaningful, something real to work on. Diane Phillips, Sarah Burwood and Helen Dunford agree that: “the end product of the project is important and should be carefully planned for. “That is surely true, but in my opinion, teachers should not give the product so much importance, the process itself carries the message, too [37, p. 12-14].

Diana Fried Booth describes project work as a real bridge between language study and language use. It is a good means for those students and teachers who want to cooperate and take the advantage of real work with the language. In addition, project work is an excellent way of establishing cross-curricular links. It also increases learners’ autonomy, because they are no more controlled by a teacher. Last, but not least, it is a welcome break with a routine [17, p. 7].

One’s past performance is inescapably tied with his future, because future unreels from the past. In education, learners have to evaluate what they have done, the extent of their success and to decide what to do next time to be better.

J. Baker states: “The past becomes closely tied to the future and, accordingly, a very important aspect of motivating learners is to help them to deal with their past in a way that it will promote rather than hinder future efforts. Students’ appraisal of their past performance does not only depend on the absolute level of success they have achieved but also on how they interpret their achievement” [4, p. 25].

In this appraisal of the learner’s performance their teacher plays an important role. To motivate them to next learning, she should help them to judge their achievement positively.  This is connected with understanding of attribution theory. Z. Dörnyei explains that researches have found that explanations about why people were successful or failed in the past play an important role when people start planning their future actions: “…attributions lie at the very heart of motivation to learn. “The author continues: Some students may attribute their past failures to stable and uncontrollable causes, such as the lack of ability, rather than factors that are changeable and within their control, such as the too little work or insufficient knowledge/use of appropriate strategies” [11, p. 117-121].

The teachers who are aware of the attributive theory can help these students by trying to change their negative attitudes: teachers should make learners believe that their failure is not a question of their ability, that it concerns their effort.

P. Graham found out the most common students’ attributions of success or failure:

a)            ability;

b)           effort;

c)            task difficulty;

d)           luck;

e)            mood;

f)              help or hindrance from others [11, p. 122].

From this list it is clear that according to learners ability and effort are the two most influential items of a man’s success or failure. Teachers should highlight the importance of effort, however. Learners should believe that it is their effort what counts and that the chances of all are equal. This interpretation of the past achievement is called constructive attribution.

2.5 Feedback, assessment and self-assessment as a means of developing students’ psychological motivation in the 10-11^th grade

“When there is no feedback, it is easy for goals – even important goals – to lose salience and priority, and eventually end up ‘on the shelf”. Teachers’ feedback is inseparable part of learning and some kind of feedback should follow every task performed. It gives learners information about their performance, progress, good points and problems.

Effective feedback, as Z.Dörnyei agrees, should have gratifying function, it should lift the learning spirit, communicate trust, encouragement, build one’s positive self-concept and self-confidence. It should be positive and at the same time descriptive and highly informative [11, p. 124].

“Most importantly, this (positive information, the author’s note) feedback provides students with information rather than judgments against external standards or peer achievement (which is the main feature of “controlling feedback”)  information feedback would compare student’s score to the student’s previous achievement, noting positive or negative trends, and at the same time identifying areas that were okay and areas that the student should focus on to improve on their progress … also provides information on how successfully the learner were applying various strategies.” Jeremy Harmer adds that in lessons, there are two other kinds of feedback: content and form. The former one is in fact an assessment how well the students performed the activity itself rather than a linguistic exercise, whereas form feedback tells students how well they have performed linguistically [21, p. 71].

Feedback should be a quick reaction to the task. If delayed, it looses much of its motivational power. Hand in hand with assessment goes self-assessment. It could be said that it is at least as important as the teacher’s response to the learner’s performance. People usually judge their own behavior, deeds, actions. Learners should assess their work or achievement as well [52].

This self-assessment is very tightly connected with the attributive theory. Except of suggestions how to work further after analysis of the past performance, however, it gives the students also information about what has been achieved, if some progress has been made. Teachers should teach students to evaluate their own performance [45, p. 87].

The good idea how to do it is a portfolio. Portfolio was originally associated with artists. It was a collection of their paintings, for example. In teaching, portfolio is used as an album of the progress in learning. A learner’s portfolio can include his plans, intentions, wishes, then also more concrete goals, e.g. what they want to achieve in the language learning. These goals should be cut to the steps that are achievable. Students should see how they go forward, how they approach their goal of learning [43, p. 47].

A portfolio should contain also a kind of dossier, it means a collection of assignments, essays, or other things they consider to be valuable or to prove their language abilities. Building up a portfolio is motivating, because learners can see what they have learnt as well as what there is to be learnt and in this way learning becomes meaningful for them. H. Puchta summarizes this: “The Portfolio helps to make the students’ learning progress and process visible and noticeable. This means that students will be able to appreciate more what they are learning [49].

These two items are the basic tools of audio-lingual method that originated from the theory of behaviorism. This method considered language to be verbal behavior and thus learning it should be similar to learning behavior, i.e. by using rewards that should reinforce the learnt subject matter and punishment that should suppress it.

Nowadays, psychologists do not agree with this approach. Z. Dörnyei summarizes their opinions with the claim that real motivational practices do not have to rely on dispensing rewards, because these do not concern learning, divert the students’ attention away from the real task and the real point of learning [11, p.124]. According to J. Raffini, rewards and punishment and “their indiscriminate use can seriously undermine students’ intrinsic motivation for the activities and behaviors being controlled” [38].

The opinions of psychologists, however, do not agree with the ones of teachers, who see rewards and punishment as things that help them in their work. Both sides can be true and the conclusion from the two opinions could be summarized in this way that seems reasonable to me: “…whether or not a reward supports or hinders motivation does not lie in the reward itself but rather in the way it is dispensed” [11, p. 130].

Z. Dornyei also suggests some tips how to use rewards in education effectively:

a)            do not overuse rewards;

b)           do not take the rewards terribly seriously;

c)            it is better if the reward has some kind of lasting visual representation;

d)           make rewards meaningful to the students;

e)            offer reward for complex activities which require creativity on students’ part.

It could seem that grades are the main reason why students go to school – so deeply is the expectation of them enrooted in the European society. “Parents expect them, education authorities require them, college admission tutors rely on them and, in general, society uses them to distribute its job resources and career paths among the multiple applicants” [11, p. 131].

The opinion of Z. Dörnyei is the same as ours: grades have really great effect on learners, because they are often learnt to value their own self-worth according to them. For getting a good grade, learners are willing to cheat and thus it becomes more important than the learning itself.

Yet grades are always highly subjective. A grade contains achievement as well as effort, but the effort itself is subjective. It reflects teacher’s insight, perception of the student’s progress, participation in lessons and it can be influenced by the student’s behavior, too.

Some schools do not use grades, they use verbal assessment instead. This describes everything what the teacher knows about the student’s approach to the subject together with information about his achievement.

The rating system, however, is used in most of schools in the world. I have to fully agree with Z. Dörnyei who asserts that grades.

a)            should be absolutely transparent;

b)           should also reflect student’s improvement;

c)            should be accompanied with the recommendation what to improve;

d)           assessment should involve also participation in lessons.

2.6 Pedagogical experiment “Motivation as psychological principle in foreign language teaching”

During school practice we decided to observe motivation as psychological principle in FLT.

The participants for the survey questionnaires were 110 students of Grade 10-11 (10A, 10B, 11A, 11B, 11C) and 10 teachers of English. These students have learnt the new syllabus since they were in Grade 5 and from the 1st class. When participating this study, they were in the third term of the school year. In our observation, their English proficiency and level of motivation was as quite equal as others’.

Ten teachers of the school were selected to get the objective data. Among those teachers, some have had many years of teaching (more than 10 years); some others have just experienced teaching for few years. The results from these teachers will give objective view on students’ motivation in FLT.

Also we decided to explore one skill, especially on speaking skills. Speaking skills is very important in our day life. Some people afraid of speaking foreign language, but they can write, read and understand English [6, p. 43]. All participants took part in the survey by responding to the three kinds of questionnaires, two for students and one for teachers. Besides, some students were also invited to take part in a follow- up interviews in order to get a complete look into the research issues.

To collect data for this study, we used two main kinds of research instruments: questionnaires for students and teachers and follow-up interviews. Added to that, class observations were also employed to supplement the above instruments. The instruments used in this study consisted of three questionnaires: two questionnaires for students and one for teachers.

 According to Bill Gillham, using questionnaires has some advantages:  low cost in time and money; easy to get information from a lot of people; respondents can complete the questionnaire when it suits them, analysis of answers to closed questions is straightforward; less pressure for an immediate response, respondents’ anonymity; lack of interviewer bias, standardization of questions (but true of structured interviews); can provide suggestive data for testing hypothesis [19, p. 34].

The questionnaires were designed in both close and open-ended questions. The questionnaires for students were written in Russian to make sure that students understood all questionnaire items.

Pre-treatment questionnaire was designed with three main parts with 13 questions. Part I was about the students’ personal information which included students’ gender, place of domicile and their average mark of English subject in the second term of Grade 11. Part II was designed to elicit the students’ opinions about their motivation in learning English. Students’ motivation was measured with their aptitude, interest, attitude, desire and effort in learning. Part III would collect some information relating to factors affecting students’ motivation in learning English.

Post-treatment questionnaire encompassed 15 questions which was divided into three parts. Part I was the same as part I in pre-treatment questionnaire. Part II included 10 questions which would gather information about students’ motivation changes after applying some new teaching techniques in speaking English. Part III aimed at collecting information about teacher’s applying activities in teaching speaking English and students’ preference of these activities.

The survey to the teachers with eight questions was about what problems teachers often faced with in teaching English, what they had done to motivate students to learn it and their opinion about T. Ayapova 11 textbook, Laser B student’s book and workbook. It comprised two sections.

Part I was the demographic information, which contained the teachers’ gender, age, the number of years they had been teaching English language in high school.

Part II was about teacher’s opinion on students’ motivation in learning, activities and techniques they had been using to motivate the students, their comment about skills in T. Ayapova 11 textbook, Laser B.

Survey questionnaires were used as the main instrument in this study. However, the using of questionnaires also has some disadvantages: The answers may be simple and superficial, the respondents are unreliable and motivated, and may face with literacy problems, the researchers may have little or no opportunity to correct the respondents’ mistakes and hallo effect (which concerns the human tendency to overgeneralize) [13, p. 53].

This is true for the study of motivation, which is an abstract, attitudinal concept. Therefore, the interviews were carried out in a following week after the post- treatment with ten participants who had considerable changes in attitude and motivation in learning speaking English [7, p. 35].

The aim our researcher interviews is to get better insights into the research questions and to discuss for further information about the items raised in the questionnaires. The participants were invited to answer the questions with the researcher’s explanation of the questions and clarifying unclear answers, each interview lasted about 20 minutes.

The informal talks were sometimes done between the researcher and students at English lesson break to have in- depth understanding about the teaching method teachers had just applied and students’ preferences.

The questions for interviews were compiled in a paper sheet. All the interviews were carried out in Kazakh and Russian in the form of an informal conversation between the researcher and the students. The data collected from interview were recorded, transcribed, and then translated into English for the purposes of the study.

Apart from the survey questionnaires for both teachers and students and the interviews, class observations were employed to clarify and test the validity of information about students’ motivation and their reaction to teachers’ applied techniques. The observations were carried out in several English lessons before and during the treatment. For each lesson, the researcher observed in 45 minutes. We designed a checklist for what we wanted to observe. Students’ reactions towards the teacher’s activities, techniques and behaviors; their participation in the activities and their feedback after the activities were all taken notes on the spot.

First, the pre-questionnaire was delivered to students at the beginning of the third term to measure input motivation. After collecting information from the pre-questionnaire, the teachers taught the students for two months with applying the new techniques, and then the post-questionnaire was given to students to gather information of students’ motivation changes, students’ attitudes towards techniques and activities applied by teachers and their preferences.

The questionnaire for teacher was conducted after doing the post treatment to gather information about teacher’s attitudes towards students’ motivation in learning English and the effects of the activities and techniques that they had applied.

Besides, the class observations were carried out before and during the treatment to check and get the data for research. Finally, the follow-up interview of ten participants was carried out in the following week to get further information for the study.

This part of the thesis is the treatment of all data collected from the survey questionnaires conducted from 110 students and 10 teachers of English of 1 school. The analysis of the data is presented in three parts: the first and the second part are the results of the pre-treatment and post-treatment questionnaire for students; the third is from the questionnaire for teachers. Along with the information via survey questionnaires, information gained through interviews and class observations were added to these main parts to assist the results.

The first and the second questions were to gather the participants’ information of gender and hometown. The total number of the students in the survey was 110 of which 59 were females and 51 were males. All of them came from town.

The next question was about participants’ experience in learning English. About 23 % had been learning English for over 5 years (5 years at secondary school). Only 77 % had been learning English for over 8 years because they had studied English at primary school for 4 years.

The subjects had finished the first semester of Grade 11 school year at high school. Their average marks in English varied differently. About 51% of them had marks 4, 28% from 3, 5% had got 2. Meanwhile, 16% got marks 5. It can be seen that the average marks of the subjects were not too high, which might reflected that they had little concern to English learning.

We had mentioned some types of motivation in chapter 1 of this study. In this part, the researcher focused on such types of motivation possessed by Grade 10 students at 1 school. They were integrative, instrumental, resultative, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Table 1).

Table 1 – Types of motivations

Reasons	Students	Percentage
To get high marks	4	4%
A compulsory subject in the syllabus and the final exam	79	72%
Interest in English language, people and culture	18	16%
To sing and listen to English songs	18	16%
For the future job	33	30%
To take university entrance exam in English	22	20%
To study abroad	10	9%

Table 1 reveals that passing the final exam is the main reason of students’ studying English. The highest percentage (72%) of the students wanted to learn English because they thought that English was one of the compulsory subjects for learning at school and their final examination. The others (20%) wanted to learn English because they would take English as a main subject in the university entrance exam. The future job was also the thing that students concerned. 30 % of them thought that English was necessary for their future job.

Clearly, these students knew the role of English in the modern life when foreign language was considered the main means of communication. In some small talks with the researcher at break, some students revealed that they studied English speaking only for their future. Following are what they said:

-      Yes, I study English speaking because I see it will be necessary for my job in the future. After leaving university or college, I want to live on my own; I do not depend on my parents any more.

-      I know when I study at university, I have to study English, too. So, why don’t I study it now? Though I am very busy with studying Math, Physics and Chemistry for my subjects of university entrance exam, I sometimes spend time for English.

At the same time, about 16% of participants answered that they were interested in English, especially English people and culture. The same answers with the same respondents also revealed they liked English because it helped them sing and listen to English songs. When answering the researcher’s question, one interviewee said:

-      I have studied English at secondary school. I am truly fond of listening and singing English songs. I also want to understand more about English people and culture. I see they are interesting.

About 9% of the respondents claimed they wanted to study abroad in the future though so far they had not known whether they could achieve their wishes or not; and that was the reason they tried to study English.

The lowest percentage of the students (4%) affirmed they were learning English because their average marks in English were higher than that in other subjects.

In short, types of motivation possessed by Grade 11 students were quite varied. The highest percentage was the students who possessed extrinsic motivation with the reason that they studied English for passing the examination and for the requirements of their teachers because English was one of their compulsory subjects at school. The lower percentage was the respondents with instrumental orientation.

These ones studied English for passing university entrance exam, getting a good job in the future or going abroad to study. The last one was some possessed integrative and intrinsic motivation with the underlying reasons that they studied English because of their enjoyment for English language and culture.

Among these figures, some students identified as having a combination of both intrinsic and instrumental orientation.

In general, students who possessed extrinsic motivation often felt unwilling and forced to learn English while students with instrumental and integrative orientation were quite eager to learn English.

Question 2. How is speaking skill important to you?

As can be seen from figure 1, the high percentage of the respondents (41%) considered speaking skill quite important to them while 26% stated it was normal. 19% of the respondents mentioned speaking was a very important, even the most important skill.

11% did not highly evaluate the importance of the speaking skill when they said that speaking skill was little important. Only 3% of them thought speaking skill was not important at all (Figure 1).

 

Fig. 1 – Students’ perceived importance of English

In general, most of students were aware of the importance of English in their studying. However, some of them did not admit this. This was because these students learnt English with extrinsic motivation not for their interest. It was, thus, the teacher’s role to find ways to stimulate the students to take part in the learning in the class.

Question 3. How is your aptitude to learn speaking English?

When responding to this question, most of respondents underestimated their aptitude to learn English.

52% estimated their aptitude at low level while 19% even claimed it was at very low. Only 21% of the participants stated that their ability of English was OK, and 8% believed they had high enough ability.

In general, students did not believe in their ability to learn English. When evaluating their capacity for a foreign language, they seemed to depend on their results of this subject at the first semester and their need of it in the future.

Question 4. How is your attitude to learn English speaking?

It can be seen from figure 2, students hold a positive attitude towards English speaking.

More than half of the students stated their attitude was at OK, high or very high level. Only 44% of them considered it at low and very low level (in which students with very low level just occupied 16%). In observation process, the researcher saw that students’ attitude towards learning was quite good. They all had enough basic materials and textbook and most of them always put attention to the teacher’s lecture (Figure 2).

Fig. 2 – Students’ attitude to learn English speaking

Question 5. How is your effort in learning English?

Although the majority of the students affirmed that they had positive attitude towards English, their effort in learning was still very low.

Over half of the respondents had low or very low effort, only 17% of them had high or very high one. Observations in class also pointed out that students’ participation in speaking activities was not voluntary.

Very few students took part in task completion and were willing to speak out (Figure 3).

 

Fig. 3 – Students’ effort in learning English

Question 6. How is your desire to learn English speaking?

Students stated that they had high desire in learning English though their ability was not good.  55% of the respondents affirmed they wanted to learn English speaking well while only 10% of them did not do that.

34% did not concern much to English speaking, they rated their desire as normal (Figure 4).

Fig. 4 – Students’ desire to learn English speaking

Question 7. How much do you feel interested in speaking English in class?

Figure 5  reveals that the majority of the students are not interested in learning speaking. 47% of the students had low interest.

This figure was much higher than those with the high one (12%). 23 out of 110 students (21%) answered that their interest was normal.

For them, they learnt English because of the pressure from outside such as requirement of the teachers and parents, the need for the exam… not because of their willingness. The lowest percentage of the respondents (4%) affirmed their interest very high while the students with no interest were much higher, 16%.

Fig. 5 – Students’ interest in learning speaking

Question 8. How often do you speak English in English class time?

The frequency of speaking English in class time also shows how much effort students wanted to master it.

Figure 6 represents that only 9% of the respondents spoke English willingly whereas 31% spoke it rarely and 6% never spoke except from the teacher’s requests. Also, 31% of them said that they liked speaking but sometimes, they were not accustomed to speaking in class because of their shyness or worrying about making mistakes (Figure 6).

In some small talks with the researcher, some students stated that they wanted to speak English in class because it was the class time that they could train themselves and expressed their opinions in English.

Except that, no environment was available for them. In general, the time to speak English in class was unequal among students.

Therefore, that the teachers should know how to use techniques and activities to motivate learners’ internal interest first and then, how to involve them to take part in speaking activities.

Fig. 6 – Students’ frequency of speaking English in class time

Question 9. Do you feel reluctant to speak English in class?

The figure 7 shows that only 7% of the respondents spoke English willingly. The little higher percentage (14%) stated they liked speaking very much but did not speak it willingly.

In contrast, the majority of them claimed they often felt reluctant to speak, even no time they wanted to speak up (figure 7).

In observation, the researcher also found out that most students did not speak English voluntarily. Only when the teachers got oral marks or required, did they have to spoke up in front of the class.

When answering researcher’s questions, one student said: “I don’t want to speak in class although I know class is a good environment for me to practice. I don’t feel self-confident”.

Shared the same idea, another student also said: “I know the importance of speaking English in my study and future, but I don’t know why I can’t speak willingly. Indeed, I am afraid everyone will laugh me”.

In fact, classroom was a good environment for all students, especially rural students, to practice English speaking because outside class they seemed to have no chance. However, the majority of the students were not highly willing to speak. The questions for teachers, thus, were how to attract student to take part in speaking activities as well as task completion.

 

Fig. 7 – Students’ reluctance of speaking English

Question 10. What do you think about the topics in Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks?

When answering this question, about half of the respondents stated that topics in Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks were OK. 14% of them were in favor of these topics and only 5% believed they were very interesting.

Contrary to these data, 26% claimed that these topics were boring, and even too boring with 7% (figure 8). In general, students had different comments on the topics of Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks. For students with high motivation in learning, they considered the topics suitable, understanding and interesting. For the rest one, they had no comments or claimed that topics in the textbooks were boring, even too boring.

Fig. 8 – Students’ opinions on the topics of Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks

Question 11. How do you think about speaking tasks in Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks?

Figure 9 indicates that 38% of the respondents found speaking tasks in Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks were suitable for their proficient level. No one said the tasks were too easy while 13 out of 110 respondents (12%) regarded these easy and claimed that they did not meet any difficulties in practising these tasks because the requirements of the tasks were not too high.

On the other hand, 35% complained about the difficulties of the tasks since they could not find ideas and structures to speak out while the rest (15%) even claimed the tasks were too difficult with the reasons that too many tasks had to be completed in each lesson and too  much  knowledge  must  be  digested at once (figure 9).

In short, speaking tasks in the Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks were very different from those in the old one. The students, so far, have been not got used to with it.

 

Fig. 9 – Students’ opinions on the speaking tasks of Ayapova 11, Laser B textbooks

Question 12. Factors making students reluctant to speak English in class.

There are learners’ factors, teacher’s factors and teaching and learning conditions that make learners unwilling to speak. Here we only mention two factors: learners’ factors and teacher’s factors (table 2).

Table 2 – Factors making students reluctant to speak English in class

Factors	Students	Percentage
Fear of mistakes and derision	68	62%
Low proficiency in English	46	42%
Being not accustomed to speaking	62	56%
Uneven allocation of turns	44	40%
Teacher’s boring teaching	73	66%
Teacher’s intolerance of silence	39	35%

Table 2 represents factors that cause students reluctant to speak in class. Actually, there are several elements that can be counted on.  For students in the survey, the most influential factor was teacher’s boring teaching. 66% of the students stated that teacher’s clear instruction, logical teaching steps as well as teacher’s good behaviors with sense of humor, enthusiasm or tolerance… in each lesson would encourage them to speak more. The same results were also found in the interview.

Some students claimed teacher’s bad pronunciation and poor background knowledge that decreased their desire of speaking English. Others blamed on teacher’s behavior and attitude that encouraged whether they were willing to speak or not. The second factor was the fear of mistakes and derision. 62% of the respondents affirmed that they wanted to speak in class, but they were always afraid of making mistakes and losing face.

Similarly, when answering the researcher’s question, one interviewee said: “I am not self-confident enough to speak in front of my teacher and classmates. I am afraid of making mistakes.” The next one (56%) was the students who were not accustomed to speaking. Clearly, students sometimes did not speak up in class not because they lacked of knowledge background or new vocabulary but they had the habit of preferring to listen more than speak. In addition, students’ proficiency was an important factor. 47 out of 110 students (42%) blamed their reluctance of speaking for low proficiency in English.

In the interview with the researchers, two students stated: “I like speaking English. But I sometimes cannot find words and structures to express my ideas”. Another complained: “My English knowledge is not very good. That’s why I don’t speak much in class”.  Besides, some other students suggested that the way teachers behaved in teaching also had a great impact on their speaking motivation. 40% complained their teachers favored the better students when soliciting responses. That was the reason why some lower proficient students in class had few chances to speak out.

The smaller number of the students (35%) mentioned to the teacher’s intolerance of silence that made them unwilling to speak. Teachers often gave them little or no wait time for speaking. After instruction, teachers required them to speak up immediately, which caused them pressured and stressed.                                                          In short, there are a variety of the factors that students had to face with. These factors came from students as well as from teachers. In order to be better in English speaking activities in class, the changes need be done between both teachers and students. Teachers change teaching methods and students change the way they learn.

Question 13.  Factors preventing students’ speaking process.

Table 3 – Factors preventing students’ speaking process

Factors	Students	Percentage
Unable to find words or structures	62	56%
Unable to find ideas	52	47%
Teacher’s unenthusiasm	33	30%
Teacher’s interruption or anger	28	25%
Too much teacher’s talking time	24	22%

As can be viewed from the table 3, 56% of the students could not find words or structures to express their opinion when speaking. In fact, the problems for the high school students were the lack of vocabulary and grammatical knowledge for learning.

It was easy to realize that in each lesson teachers often explained not only new words and new structures but also some simple words that learners had learnt before. The next, which affected 47 % of the respondents, was that they could not find ideas for their speech. It was not surprising to find out this fact because most students lacked the background knowledge in English.

Another factors which related to teachers included teacher’s unenthusiasm (30%), teacher’s interruption or anger (25%) and teacher’s too much talking time (22%). In researcher’s observation, we had found out that teacher’s characteristics played an important role in students’ speaking process. I followed two lessons at one class. In the first lesson, the teacher taught with friendly, enthusiastic, joyful and a bit funny attitude, I realized that most students were eager to take part in lesson including even lower proficiency ones. In the second, the teacher was a bit stricter with no smile.

The results, certainly, were very different. Not many students wanted to participate in the lesson except from the teacher’s requirements. Some better students’ talking time was reduced. The class atmosphere was rather quiet and all students seemed very uncomfortable. It, therefore, can be said that teacher’s factors were not the most important but the decisive ones that maintain students’ speaking process.

In conclusion, from the data of the pre-treatment questionnaire, it can be seen that students’ motivation in learning English speaking was very low. Obviously, most students had high attitude and desire to learn English but they did not devote their effort and interest for learning. Consequently, the majority of them often felt unwilling to speak. So, what should the teachers do to motivate students to speak? In the data analysis of the post-treatment questionnaire, the researcher would give some solutions that were applied in the two-month teaching process of the researcher. Hopefully, it could help teachers encourage students to speak up in classroom.

2.7 Results from students’ questionnaire

Question 1. How is speaking skill important to you?

After the treatment, the number of students considered speaking very important increased from 19% to 24% while the number of students who underestimated the importance of speaking reduced to 5 %. All students confirmed the important role of speaking to them in the future. When talking with the researcher, some students expressed the same opinions: “At first I learnt English speaking in order to get oral marks only, now I am changed, I am studying it for my future”.

Question 2. How is your aptitude to learn speaking English?

Before the treatment, all students seemed not to believe in their capacity of learning English. Surprisingly, the students with high aptitude were up by 8% to 13% at the post treatment. Similarly, the students who thought their aptitude OK increased by 23%, from 21% to 44%. Only the smallest percentage of the respondents (5%) did not believe in their ability of speaking with the thinking that they could not speak English well despite speaking it in the simplest way.

Question 3. How is your attitude to learn speaking English?

Over half of the respondents had the positive attitude before the treatment. After the treatment, this number slightly increased. The number of the students with very low attitude decreased from 16% to 4% while the student with high one also increased to 21%, an increase of 12%. The highest percentage were also the students with OK attitude, which increased by 11%, from 41% to 52%.

Question 4. How is your effort in learning speaking English?

In terms of effort, the most significant increase was the students with OK effort, at 50%. Then, the number of the high effort students also went up to 20%, an increase of 9%. Noticeably, the low effort students considerably reduced, from 54% down to 24%. It could not be denied that all students realized the importance of English speaking in their study and in the future. They, therefore, saved more time and effort for learning English. When answering the researcher’s question in the interview, one student showed: “If I speak English well, I will be easy to find a job in the future. I think so”.

Question 5. How is your desire to learn speaking English?

Students’ desire to learn speaking English slightly changed. The students with high desire rose up to 42%, a little increase of 3%, whereas the student with OK desire increased by 6%, from 37 to 44 students. However, there was still the students with very low desire, which occupied 4% of total.

Question 6. How much do you feel interested in speaking English in class?

It was interesting to note that there was a sharp increase of the interested students in learning English speaking. The number of student with quite high interest increased from 12% to 45%. Contrary to this, the number of the respondents with little interest was down to 14%, a decrease of 33%. The rest changed insignificantly, from 16% down to 7% for students with no interest, from 4% up to 21% for highly interested students.

One student also expressed her opinion in the interview: “When I started to learn English, I like it very much. However, the teaching method unmotivated me. Now, my interest has considerably increased”. The researcher’s observation pointed out that students’ interest in English speaking had been changed. Most of them were more eager to learn.

 Question 7.  How often do you speak English in English class time?

It was understandable that students’ changes in interest would lead to the changes in the frequency of the participation in speaking. The students who never spoke except when asked by teacher reduced to 3% while the students who usually spoke increased to 50 people, a significant increase of 25%. The changes also happened to the number of students who sometimes spoke in classroom with a decrease of 12%, from 31% down to 19%

Question 8. Do you feel reluctant to speak English in class?

Surprisingly, the number of reluctant speakers dramatically reduced after the treatment. Only 24% of the students often felt reluctant to speak and the much smaller figure, 6%, was the students who always felt the same state. The students who like speaking increased nearly half of the total. In follow-up interview, one student gladly said: “At first, I felt very difficult to express my opinions in English. Now, it is easier. I can talk with my friends and teachers in English.”

Question 9. What do you think about the topics in Aypova 11, Laser B textbooks?

The majority of the student no longer evaluated the topics of Aypova 11, Laser B textbooks boring or very boring. Instead of this, they confirmed that topics of the textbook were OK, 64%, and interesting, 23%. The number of the respondents who highly appreciated these topics also remained constant (5%).

Question 10. What do you think about speaking tasks in Aypova 11, Laser B textbooks?

Over half of the respondents considered speaking tasks in the textbook OK after the treatment, increased by 16%. Twenty-four percent of them found the tasks easy and only 21% claimed that they were difficult and too difficult, reduced by 32% compared to those number before the treatment. The researcher also realized in her observation that many more students took part in the task completion and handouts for extra speaking activities teachers gave. Students’ oral marks in each lesson were higher than those before.

Question 11. What results have you achieved through the recent lessons?

 

Fig. 10 – Students’ results after the treatment

A.    More self-confident and interested in speaking English

B.    English speaking skill has been improved

C.    English knowledge has been widened

D.    Learning to speak English well is not difficult

E.    Willing to speak English in class

As is illustrated by figure 10, the majority of the students (62%) affirmed their English speaking skill were improved much after the treatment.

Clearly, when teachers applied CLT in teaching speaking, teachers created students with “information gap, choice and feedback” (Morrow, 1981).

Students, therefore, would have more chance to speak up, the weaker students would exchange information with the better ones, the practicing time for each student increased. This was why most students realized that they felt more self-confident and interested in speaking (47%).

Next, 34% of the students stated their knowledge had been widened and 26% of the students who found difficult in speaking English before changed their opinion in the positive trend. 20% of them kept the same opinion when they said that they were always willing to speak English.

Answering the researcher’s questions in the interview, one student expressed: “Yes, I have realized that English is not difficult. Perhaps, I will take university entrance examination in English”.

In fact, most students seemed more eager to learn and reduced stress in each speaking lesson. Seven out of ten interviewees revealed that they felt more self-confident in learning English in recent lessons and that they were not afraid much of being failed the final examination in English.

Question 12. Which of the following factors may encourage you to speak English in class?

Table 4 – Factors that encourage students to speak English in class

Factors	Students	Percentage
Interesting topics in the textbook	51	46%
Teachers’ good characteristics	46	42%
Teachers’ teaching methods	68	62%
Pleasant class atmosphere	39	35%
Various speaking activities	63	57%
High oral marks you may get	26	24%

It was interesting that the most influential factor in the students’ motivation was teacher’s teaching methods, which occupied 62 % of the respondents (Table 4). The reasons for a successful speaking lesson were that all students participated in activities of the lesson; they could give their ideas to discuss with classmates, ask and answer their own questions with help from the teacher and better students.

Teachers, in terms of the guide’s role, should avoid adopting a teacher- centered, authoritarian posture. She/ he should keep asking questions, having students be enthusiastically found out the answer and take part in the task completion. Ranking second was various speaking activities that held 57% of the respondents’ ideas. If the teacher required students to do the task by only one way, it would lead to boredom among students.

Teachers, therefore, should select learning activities according to how well they engage the students in meaningful and authentic language use rather than in the merely mechanical practice of language patterns. Various activities could be pair work, group work, individual work, role-play, communicative games and so on.

Next, 46% perceived that the interesting topics in the textbook highly affected their motivation. The topics relating the daily life, students’ experience and their knowledge background were easier for them to digest and speak out the lesson.

Equally important, teachers’ good characteristics also highly motivated students (42%). Teachers’ enthusiasm, tolerance and helpfulness could make students feel calm and be helped. Students were willingly to discuss and express their ideas with teacher and classmates. Pleasant class atmosphere was the influential factor, too.

The class in which classmates helped each other, both weaker and better students shared ideas, vocabulary and structures, both teacher and students together discussed and solved the problems setting up in the tasks was the best environment for students to practise speaking.

Finally yet importantly, giving marks to students, especially to high school students was a decisive factor to motivate them in speaking. Marks were sometimes considered students’ participating rewards. Good marks teachers gave meant their effort and showed off their ability of the study. This was why 24% of the respondents chose the reason of getting high oral marks for their motivation in speaking.

Question 13.   In speaking lesson, which of the following activities does your teacher often use to motivate you and which do you feel enjoyable?

Table 5 – Activities applied by the teachers and students’ preferences

Speaking activities	The activities applied by the teachers (responded by the students)		Students enjoyed the activities
	Students	Percentage	Students	Percentage
Completing dialogue practice	90	82	68	62
Role play	47	43	28	25
Interview	24	22	11	10
Games	33	30	96	87
Free discussion and problem solving	50	45	22	20
Structure-based activities	100	91	98	89
Making up sentences orally	100	91	98	89
Question and answer exchanges	101	92	96	87
Picture description	57	52	79	72
Ranking exercises	47	43	74	67
Story telling	35	32	24	22
Rearrangement	17	15	58	53
Visual aids (pictures, maps, music, handouts)	25	23	83	75
Others

As can be seen from table 5, the activities preferred by most students were structure- based activities (89%), making up sentences orally (89%), question, and answer exchanges (87%). The explanation for these could be that such activities were easy to prepare and speak up, participated by many students and good ways for students to speak correctly based on structures.

Also from table 5, most students (91%, 91% and 92% respectively) stated that their teacher also often provided them these activities in speaking lessons. Next, games were enjoyed by most students (87%). Students answered that they really enjoyed games in speaking lessons because taking part in games helped them reduce stress and motivate them to get involved in the tasks.

However, only 30% of the students claimed their teacher used games in speaking lesson. The reasons why teachers rarely used games in speaking lesson were that games needed time-consuming and were not profitable. Not only games but also visual aids such as pictures, maps, music and handouts caught up the interest of  75% of the students meanwhile only 23% of the students reported that the teachers used them.

In fact, when being asked about games and visual aids in speaking lesson, all interviewees supposed that visual aids and games strongly attracted their intension, involvement, interest and motivation in learning.  Picture description, ranking exercises and completing dialogue practice were enjoyed many students (72%, 67% and 62% respectively).

They said that these kinds of activities were not difficult to prepare, reasonable for their English proficiency level, quite interesting and provided them with good opportunities to express their own opinion. Nevertheless, 82% of the students remarked teachers liked to use completing dialogue practice activity, 52% claimed picture description was often given to them and 43% of the respondents said their teachers often used ranking exercises in the speaking lesson.

Rearrangement were fond of by over half of the students (53%), yet it was rarely used by teachers (15%) because teachers complained that they were not interesting enough for speaking activities and did not encourage students’ creation. Free discussion and problem solving, role play, story telling and interview were sometimes preferred by about half of the teachers (45%, 43%, 32% and 22% respectively) for the reasons that they provided students with good chances to express their own ideas, made them more self- confident and required them to think deeply.

Yet these activities were rarely enjoyed by students (20%, 25%, 22% and 10%) because most of them lacked vocabulary of English and social knowledge. Besides, they usually felt not self- confident enough to interview their classmates, for examples.

In short, there were some speaking activities that were preferred by most teachers and students such as structure based activities, question and answer exchanges… However, there was a quite big gap between the ways the teachers had done to motivate students and how the students enjoyed as mentioned above. Teachers, thus, should realize and analyze students’ needs in order to guide and teach them in the suitable way.

Question 14.  Which of the following activities do you like most in a speaking lesson?

 

Fig. 11 –  Activities enjoyed most by students

The  figure 11 shows that group work is preferred by most students (57%). The main reason for this could be that group work could promote learners’ responsibility and self-governing, it also had the relationship with learner psychological factors such as lessening learners’ anxiety, laziness and unfamiliarity with communicative lessons. Ranking the second was pair work, which was liked most by 33% of the respondents.

Pair work was considered the simplest form of group work because it included two people working together. Pair work was suitable for students when they took part in question and answer exchange activity, completing dialogue practice or role-play.

When students work in pairs, they seemed to reduce anxiety and reluctance in speaking. However, sharing ideas with other classmates could be limited. The least favorable activity for the students was individual work, which occupied only 10 % of total.

As we observed, it seemed that only good pupils liked working individually because they could talk more, discuss more with teachers. In fact, individual work sometimes led to boredom or even tiredness among pupils, thus it decreased motivation.

For speaking lesson, not only teachers but also students liked pair work and group work. Some students, for instance, in the interview stated that: “I like to work in groups because my group members and I can share ideas and help find structures”, or “Yes, of course. Pair work and group work are suitable and useful. We can help each other correct mistakes and share ideas”.

Question 15. Which of the followings do you think your teachers should do to motivate you to take part in speaking activities?

Table 6 – What teachers do to motivate students to take part in speaking activities

What teachers do	Students	Percentage
Not interrupting you when you make mistakes	50	45%
Accepting a variety of your answers	57	52%
Encouraging you with marks and rewards	18	16%
Being enthusiastic, friendly and helpful	41	37%
Creating some interesting games and activities	75	68%
Creating pleasant class atmosphere	28	25%
Having clear instructions	52	47%

As is shown by the table, what most students (68%) liked teachers to do in speaking lesson was creating some interesting games and activities. Games and various activities could help students reduce stress, feel funny and become more active in learning (table 6).

In the interview, one student said: “In fact, we are often pressured in speaking lessons. I think communicative games can help. They help us reduce stress and be easy to speak out”. The second that teachers should do was accepting variety of students’ answers. 52% of the students wanted teachers to accept their various answers for the question providing that these answers were right. Next, teacher’s clear instruction was quite important.

47% of them complained teacher’s complicated questions, lengthy instructions and unsatisfactory explanations could confuse and unmotivate them, and sometimes made them be misled into the lesson. Teacher’s characteristics and behaviors in class were paid much attention from students. 45% concerned to how teachers behaved when students made mistakes, 37% took the great notice of teacher’s enthusiasm, friendliness and helpfulness.

In general, most students hoped the teacher should be more flexible, tolerant, creative, enthusiastic and helpful to make the speaking lessons more interesting. About a fourth wished the teacher to create pleasant class atmosphere in speaking lesson and only 16% of them liked teachers to motivate them with marks and rewards. Answering teacher’s questions, one student expressed: “I think marks are very important. If I speak well, teachers should encourage me with high marks”.

In short, what the students wanted the teacher to do for them was to create a variety of speaking activities, accept their various answers, guide them clearly and behave in the friendly and helpful way. Besides, the teacher should create a pleasant and comfortable learning environment, sometimes encourage students with marks and rewards.

2.8 Results from teacher’s survey questionnaire

Question 1. What do you think of the importance of speaking English to your students?

The results obtained from survey questionnaire for the teachers revealed that all the teachers (100%) were aware of the importance of speaking to the students in language learning. All of them agreed that students could communicate much through speaking. 80% of them affirmed speaking helped students to improve other language skills and language linguistic knowledge. They stated that there was a great relation between speaking and other skills.

Reading provided speaking with vocabulary, information and knowledge background. Writing helped learners better in grammar structures and arranging ideas for speaking. Listening supported pronunciation, intonation, colloquialisms and speaking models in practice.

As the matter of fact, all teachers agreed that speaking could bring students with enjoyment and pleasure and help students broaden knowledge of the world; among them, a half insisted the much more importance of speaking in students’ broadening knowledge while another affirmed the importance of speaking to students’ enjoyment and pleasure.

Question 2. Which stages of a speaking lesson do you find that it is necessary to motivate your students?

Table 7 – Teacher’s opinions on students’ motivation of the speaking stages

Stages	Teachers	Percentages
Pre-speaking stage	0	0
While-speaking stage	2	20
Post-speaking stage	0	0
All above mentioned stages	8	80

As is shown table 7, most of the teachers (80%) agreed that they should motivate students in all stages of the speaking lesson, from presentation stage to production one.

The role of the teacher, therefore, was as the role of the motivator of the whole lesson.

Besides, only two teachers claimed that motivation was needed in while speaking stage because students seemed not to work much in other stages.

Question 3. What problems are you facing with in teaching speaking?

Table 8 – Problems teachers facing in teaching speaking

Problems	Teachers	Percentage
Limited time	7	70%
Students’ different proficiency levels	6	60%
Students’ reluctance	8	80%
Large classes	3	30%
Poor facilities	4	40%
Others

From the table 8, it is clear that problems teachers often faced in teaching speaking English are large classes, students’ low proficiency, students’ reluctance, limited time for speaking lessons and poor facilities.

The highest percentage of the teachers (80%) complained that the students’ reluctance to speak was seen as their biggest challenge. In their speaking, most of the students often felt unwilling to speak except from their requirements. Next, 7 out of 10 teachers responded that time allowance for each lesson was also a problem.

The time for each speaking lesson seemed not enough for teachers and students to complete all the tasks. Besides, 60% of the teachers found difficult to be coped with students’ different proficiency levels.

Teachers complained that in speaking classes with students at various levels, the less proficient learners might feel intimidated by their more advanced ones.

On the other hand, the more proficient learners might feel that the other students slow them down. Teachers, therefore, were very difficult to apply the same activities and techniques for two kinds of students at the same time.

In addition, the lower percentage of the teachers (30% and 40% respectively) complained about size of the class and poor teaching and learning facilities of the school.

 Some facilities of the school seemed out of date, the others were not enough for all teachers and students.

Above were some main problems that teachers were faced with in teaching speaking English for Grade 11 students. The solution for these would be introduced in some following parts.

Question 4. How often do you use the following activities in speaking lesson?

Table 9 – Activities applied by teachers by frequency

Activities	Always	Often	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
Individual work	0	3	7	0	0
Pair work	2	6	2	0	0
Group work	2	7	1	0	0

Of the activities applied by teachers in table 9, group work was utilized the most often by the majority of the teachers. This was derived from the fact that teachers often faced with some challenges in speaking classroom such as students’ anxiety, reluctance to speak, different proficiency levels and large size class. Setting up group work in speaking class, therefore, was necessary. 

Firstly, in the large size class, letting students work in groups could help teachers manage the class and provide students with many more opportunities to talk and self- check.

Secondly, in multi- level classes, group work helped teachers make use of students’ strengths. For examples, some students might be more influent while others might be more accurate. Some had creative ideas but might not be able to express them well in English. Some were the impulsive but others were the reflective ones.

 In general, if teachers recognized and reinforced the various learners’ talents and strengths, students would respect each other’s contributions. Added to that letting students work in groups, teachers could encourage the quieter students, reduced students’ anxiety and reluctance, distributed talking turns and provided opportunities for balanced interaction.

Pair work was the simplest of group work. Pair work was often used by most teachers because its advantages were the same ones of group work. However, when working in pairs, students seemed not to have many chances to share ideas and learn much from other classmates except from the only partner. Individual work was used the least by all of the teachers.

Actually, individual work often led to boredom or even tiredness among the students. The interaction in the class, then, was often separated.

Question 5. Which of the following speaking activities do you often give your students to do?

Table 10 – Speaking activities applied by teachers

Activities	always	often	sometimes	rarely	never
Completing dialogue practice	7	2	1	0	0
Role play	0	4	5	1	1
Interview	1	1	3	5	0
Games	2	3	1	4	0
Free discussion and problem solving	0	2	4	4	0
Structure- based activities	6	2	2	0	0
Making up sentence orally	7	2	1	0	0
Question and answer exchanges	8	2	0	0	0
Picture description	0	4	2	4	0
Ranking exercises	0	5	4	1	0
Story telling	0	1	4	4	1
Discussion ordering	0	2	5	3	0
Rearrangement	0	1	5	4	0
Topic- based discussion	0	0	0	0	10
Mime stories	0	0	0	0	10
Visual aids (pictures, maps, music, handouts)	0	2	6	2	0
Others

It is clear from the table, among sixteen speaking activities mentioned, completing dialogue practice, structure- based activities, making up sentence orally and question and answer exchanges were most carried by the majority of the teachers.    This high frequency of using these activities was because they were not only appropriate to the requirement of the tasks in every speaking lesson but also suitable to students’ proficiency level.

Ranking the second were role-play, free discussion and problem solving, picture discussion, interview, story telling and ranking exercises.         Most teachers stated that these activities would provide students with good opportunities to practise and express their own opinions. However, they were quite difficult with the low proficient students.

Games, visual aids, and rearrangement were exploited the lowest frequency by most teachers for the reasons that they were so simple, time-consuming in preparation and not benefit much for students.

Topic-based discussion and mime stories were never used by teachers because they were new and quite difficult for both teachers and students.

Question 6. Which of the following techniques do you use to motivate students to speak English?

Table 11 – Techniques applied by teachers

Techniques	Teachers	Percentage
Combining textbook and relevant materials	6	60
Giving feedback regularly	7	70
Creating the competitive atmosphere	1	10
Creating the co-operative atmosphere	3	30
Applying rewards and punishment policy	1	10
Varying communicative activities	9	90
Encouraging students to speak by suggested questions	6	60

In order to motivate students, most teachers (90%) chose varying communicative activities as the main technique in teaching (table 11). By varying activities, teachers would offer students opportunities to activate their existing knowledge about the topic of the lesson as well as to practise speaking skill.

7 out of 10 teachers had a habit of giving feedback regularly by marking and giving comments on students’ speaking. Marks were sometimes considered students’ rewards and evaluation towards students’ contribution and effort in learning. Giving marks timely would encourage and motivate students.

The next group of motivational techniques fell on combining textbook and relevant materials (60%) and encouraging students to speak by suggested questions (60%).

Giving suggested questions to students could help students get more involved in the lesson and increased their speaking with unpopular topics. 30% of the teachers preferred to create the co-operative atmosphere in classroom.

This co-operation would happen between teachers and students, and among students. Besides, it was very surprising that rewards and punishment policy was not popular among teachers (10%).

Most teachers stated that increasing students’ intrinsic motivation would never happen if they rewarded or punished students because this technique could cause tension among them.

 Also, creating the competitive atmosphere was the same, with the choice of only 10 % of the total teachers.

Question 7. What do you do to create a good relationship with your students to help them speak better?

Five suggested ways for the teachers to create a good relationship with students were mentioned in the questionnaire, namely, remaining in teacher’s seat, walking round the class and giving help, standing near students who speak much, doing nothing and letting them talk freely and always being tolerant, enthusiastic and helpful.

All of the teachers expressed that they always behaved students in friendly, enthusiastic and tolerant way. For them, letting students have a close relation with teachers would motivated them in learning in general and in speaking in particular. 80% said that they often walked round the class and gave help to the students when necessary.

When working in pairs or groups, for examples, student’s ideas might be not accepted by group members or a partner, teacher’s timely and appropriate suggestion would enhance students’ motivation.

Besides, it was not very surprising that the rest ways, namely, remaining in the teacher’s seat, standing near students who speak much, doing nothing and letting them speak freely were not chosen by any teachers.

In short, to create the good relationship with the students to make students interested in speaking, different ways were exploited by most teachers.

However, the frequency of using these ways depended much on each teacher, especially teacher’s characteristics.

Question 8. What do you think about speaking skill in Aypova 11, Laser B textbooks?

Table 12 – Teacher’s evaluation on speaking skill of Aypova 11, Laser B textbooks

Evaluated fields	very bad	bad	OK	good	very good
Topics	2	0	6	2	0
Order of lessons	0	3	6	1	0
Tasks	0	2	6	2	0
Illustration	0	2	8	0	0

Most of the teachers (60%) agreed that topics for speaking in the textbook were OK and 20% of them stated they were bad and good (Table 12). All the topics were compiled according to themes which related to students’ daily activities such as daily routines, friendship, sports, entertainment…, so they were fit for students. No one complained topics for speaking were bad or very bad.

In terms of the order of the lessons, 60% said that the order of the whole book in general and the speaking tasks in particular were logical. 10% stated the order was good while the rest (30%) complained it was bad. For him, though topics were compiled according to themes, these themes were not involved in series of the continuing units but mixed. This sometimes confused students.

As regards the tasks, over half of the teachers agreed that speaking tasks were OK, two of them said tasks were good while two other teachers considered they were bad for the reasons that the tasks in each lesson were not balanced. Some lessons had two many tasks, so time allowance was not enough. In addition, there was not a variety of activities in each lesson.

The type of tasks in this lesson seemed similar to ones in the others. Asking and answering questions, expressing attitudes about something and discussion are the most common in every lesson.

These monotonous tasks did not increase students’ interest and motivation and led to poor involvement in the classroom. The final of comment field was illustration. The majority of the teachers said illustration in speaking lesson was OK whereas two of them said it was bad because it had not enough pictures for each speaking lesson.

In short, in comparison with the old textbook, the new one had much more improvement. The textbook was designed in the light of CLT and required students to expert in all skills of leaning a foreign language: reading, speaking, listening and writing. It could be believed that after studying all the textbooks of the new syllabus, students’ English could satisfy the basic requirements of the society in general and their career in particular.

However, so far the new textbook had been applied for over one year, so there were still some challenges for students to study it. The challenge could be that students’ English proficiency did not satisfy its requirement, or most students found quite unfamiliar and difficult with the applying CLT in teaching and learning of the new textbook.

Summary of part 2

The main reason for the majority of the students to learn English speaking was they could pass the final examination. Studying speaking English for the future job was what many students concerned. Some other students expressed their wishes to pass the university entrance examination in English or learning English to study abroad, but this number was not too high.

However, the lowest percentage of them stated that they learnt speaking English for their interest or enjoyment. Therefore, it was undeniable that over half of the subjects were extrinsically motivated when they learnt subject matter. Besides, nearly half of them instrumentally learnt it.

The subjects with integrate and intrinsic orientation occupied the small number. Added to that, some were found to possess a mixed type of motivation by the mixture of intrinsic, instrumental and integrate orientation in learning speaking. Extrinsic motivation, thus, was the most important in learning speaking English of Grade 10-11 students at 1 high school.

The findings showed that some factors that affected students in learning speaking were learners’ factors, teachers’ factors, teaching and learning condition.

Firstly, some factors coming from learners such as learners’ proficiency in English, their interest, personalities and learning style in learning speaking were found out. The findings indicated that these factors seemed be equally important in students’ learning a L2.

In the speaking lesson, the students with lower proficiency might feel intimidated by the more advanced ones and vice versa. These students, thus, were often afraid of making mistakes and losing face in front of their teacher and classmates. As the result, they often felt reluctant to speak out in class. Also from the findings, students’ interest played an important role in students’ speaking motivation.

The high interest students would be the high effort ones. Students with high interest always put the aims for learning and always tried their best to achieve it. The next was students’ personalities. This factor was quite important for Grade 10-11 students. The reluctant speakers were students who always felt ashamed, hesitant and not self-confident enough in front of the classmates and teachers. The findings showed that over half of the students did not speak much in classroom not for their low proficiency in English but for their personalities such as shyness and inferiority.

The final factor from learners was learning style. In speaking lesson, learning style influenced students much. The impulsive learners often talked much while the reflective ones preferred to think more. For the limited time lesson, the reflective learners often had fewer chances to speak out than the impulsive ones. The findings from researcher’s observation pointed out that the speaking class with more reflective learners seemed be quieter and more boring than the one with more impulsive ones.

Secondly, the findings referred to teacher’s factors. During the whole speaking lesson, teachers were considered working as a motivator, thus, it was the teacher who had the most important role to stimulate students. Teacher’s factors consisted of teacher’s behaviors and relationship with students, teacher’s teaching methods applied in teaching. The findings pointed out the first and foremost important factor from teachers were the learner- centered teaching methods, which held about 62 % of the students.

In speaking lesson, the teachers with learner- centered teaching method would know how to keep students’ speaking, how to give food for students’ thinking and how to give each student chances to participate in speaking tasks in order that the lesson was not quiet and boring. Speaking activities and techniques in each lesson, therefore, were always varied by teachers. They got students to work in pairs, groups or individually in all lessons.

In different tasks they used different activities and techniques such as question and answer exchanges, discussion, interview … They also combined the textbook with relevant materials, gave suggested questions and feedback regularly to the students, created the co- operative atmosphere and especially never punished students who made mistakes. Visual aid and games were sometimes used to stimulate students and reduce students’ stress in speaking.

Besides, teacher’s behavior and relationship with students were very important. All students wanted that their teacher were friendly, enthusiastic, tolerant and helpful. The way teachers behaved, thus, had a great impact on students’ motivation.

Thirdly, teaching and learning condition also plays an important role in increasing motivation. Most teachers (70%) complained about limited time in learning process. Nearly half of the teachers said about school’s poor facilities such as not enough cassettes, projectors or overhead for teaching. Besides, class atmosphere was one of the main factors.

 The majority of the students enjoyed the co- operative and pleasant atmosphere in class. A pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere would create students’ motivation and encourage their participation in speaking. On the contrary, a tense classroom climate would increase students’ anxiety, shyness and unselfconfidence.

Thus, the factors that influence students’ motivation in speaking include both internal and external ones. The internal factors are some which derive from students’ themselves and the external ones are come from teachers and learning and teaching condition.

Most teachers and students preferred structure- based activities, making up sentences orally, question and answer exchanges and completing dialogue practice. These activities were the main ones of the speaking tasks and were repeated in most of the lessons. Working in groups or pairs were also the same. Nearly all students and teachers enjoyed using it. For some other activities such as using visual aids, games…, the findings pointed out the big gap between what teachers had done to motivate learners and what students preferred. 

Students mostly liked games and visual aids since games and visual aids made them funny and helped them reduce stress, increased their motivation as well as encouraged their imagination. On the other hand, teachers did not enjoy these activities much due to the lack of time and unprofitableness.

The findings also showed that teachers preferred the activities that required students to think deeply and to spend a great amount of knowledge and vocabulary such as free discussion and problem solving, interview, story telling… meanwhile students did not enjoy them. In short, the findings had indicated some differences between teachers’ using activities and students’ preferences. The solutions for these would be introduced in the recommendation part.

Motivating students to speak in class is the great concern of all the teachers in 1 high school. Following the researcher introduces some ways with the hope that it will help teachers to stimulate students to speak English.

Firstly, the teachers should know their students’ interest and expectation in learning English. There have been a big gap between teacher’s teaching methods and students’ expectation such as the activities teachers preferred to apply but students did not like, the topic teachers enjoyed to talk about but it was not fond of by many students. Teachers, therefore, should investigate what students want to see that whether their teaching methods and knowledge they applied are suitable with students or not.

Secondly, most students learn English because of the school requirement and their aims in the future, not for their own enjoyment. Teachers, therefore, should maintain the extrinsic and instrumental motivation and enhance the intrinsic one. For the extrinsically motivated students, teachers should give them more tasks, require them to do more exercises in order that they can get high results in their test and examination.

Besides, teachers can enhance their intrinsic motivation by inserting English culture and custom in the speaking lessons, rouse their love to English through listening English songs and watching English films. And for students who are instrumentally motivated, teachers should discuss with them about how each task helps them to achieve their goal (for both short-term and long-term goals).

They, besides, should help them to set up both their short- term goal such as the goal of a week or a semester and long- term goal such as the goal of the high school course and constantly take care of how they perform to reach their goals.

For the intrinsically motivated students, teachers can motivate them by varying activities, tasks and materials to increase their interest level. Providing them with reference materials and some websites in English on the Internet is a good way to encourage their love to English.

Thirdly, self-confidence determines the amount of effort and time students will spend and the persistence they will display in the process of learning, so it is important for teachers to increase students’ self-confidence in learning speaking English.

Teachers should make students believe that speaking English competence is changeable and controllable as long as they exert enough effort in learning. Also, teachers should provide some experiences of success regularly to students and emphasize what students can do rather than can not do. Besides, teachers’ encouragement at the right time can enhance students’ confidence to and reduce their anxiety in speaking.

Making use of learners’ strengths, furthermore, is what teachers should concern. They should let students with different strengths work together in order that they can take advantages from partners’. For examples, the more confident students can work with the less ones or the students with academic strengths can work with the ones with interesting life experiences.

CONCLUSION

It is undeniable that motivation plays a crucial role in learning English. Thus, this study set out to investigate the factors affecting students’ motivation in learning English. It also focuses and evaluates motivational techniques used by teachers at 1 high school, students’ needs and demands. It, then, suggest pedagogical implications to improve student motivation in learning English.

The findings shows that grade 10-11 students at 1 high school are not only extrinsically, instrumentally but also intrinsically and integratively motivated. Besides, their motivation in speaking is affected much by the factors coming from students’ themselves, teachers and learning condition.

On the other hand, to find out factors that increase as well as decrease students’ motivation, the teachers at 1 high school have attempted to apply motivational techniques and activities in teaching English as a treatment. Based on the data collection and analysis,

We have had a concrete picture of motivation, factors affecting motivation in learning English of grade 10-11 students as well as students’ preferences and demands to teachers. We then, have offered some recommendations for motivating students to speak. These recommendations are based on theoretical background of motivation and speaking, the researcher’s knowledge, experience and observation in teaching. We believe that these recommendations will be of help for 1 high school English teachers in general and for English teachers at 1 high school in particular.

In a word, it is hoped that this study will make a specially significant contribution to the better current situation in teaching and learning English of the 10-11th grade students and to the ongoing process of renovation for teaching English at 1 high school.

A considerable effort has been made to investigate motivation in learning English of grade 10-11 students at 1 high school. However, due to limited time and ability, there are number of related areas which we can not cover in the study. First, subjects of the study are only the students of grade 10-11, not all the students in the school. Second, we merely concentrate on studying students’ motivation in learning English and speaking English, do not focus on some related skills such as reading, writing and listening. Third, time for applying the new teaching methods as a treatment of the study is limited for two months, the short period of time makes the reliability of the study be reduced.

With above limitations, further research on the topic might include all the students in the school. Research later might also investigate factors affecting motivation in learning the second language in general, and it might be carried out with the treatment of the study in the long time.

 

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APPENDIX A

Pre-questionnaire for students

This survey questionnaire is designed for the study of factors affecting motivation in learning English speaking of the Grade 10-11 students at 1 high school. Your assistance in completing the following items is highly appreciated. All the information provided by you is of great use and solely for the study purpose. Thank you!

Please circle the answer where necessary.

PART I.  PERSONAL INFORMATION

1) Your gender

A.    Male                                       B. Female

2. Your hometown:

A. Village                                       B. Town    

3. How long have you been learning English? … years

4. Your average marks in English in the first term of Grade 10: …………

PART II.  STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LEARNING SPEAKING ENGLISH

1.            Why do you want to learn English speaking?

A.          It is easier than other skills to get high marks.

B.          It is a compulsory subject in the syllabus and in the final examination.

C.          You like English, especially English culture and people.

D.          It helps you to sing and listen to English songs.

E.           You think it is necessary for you in your future job.

F.You want to pass the university entrance exam.

G.          You want to study abroad.

2.            How is speaking skill important to you?

A.          very            B. rather     C. normal    D. little       E. not at all

3.            How is your aptitude to learn speaking English?

A.          very high     B. high        C. OK         D. low        E. very low

4.            How is your attitude to learn speaking English?

A. very high       B. high                 C. OK                  D. low                  E. very low

5.            How is your effort in learning speaking English?

A.          very high     B. high                 C. OK                  D. low                  E. very low

6.            How is your desire to learn speaking English?

A.          very high     B. high                 C. OK                  D. low                  E. very low                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              

7.            How much do you feel interested in speaking English in class?

A.          very            B. rather     C. normal    D. little       E. not at all

8.            How often do you speak English in English class time?

A.          always        B. usually   C. sometimes                 D. rarely     E. never except when asked by teacher

9.            Do you feel reluctant to speak English in class?

A.          Yes, always          B. Yes, often                  C. Yes, sometimes

D. No, I like speaking very much.             E. No, I speak willingly

10.       What do you think about the topics in your textbook?

A.          very interesting     B. interesting                 C. OK                  D. boring                          E. too boring

11.       What do you think about speaking tasks in your textbook?

A.          too difficult          B. difficult  C. OK                  D. easy                 E. too easy

PART III. FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LEARNING SPEAKING ENGLISH

12.       Which of the following factors make you reluctant to speak English in class?

A.          Fear of mistakes and derision

B.          Your low proficiency in English

C.          Being not accustomed to speaking English in class

D.          Teacher’s uneven allocation of turns

E.           Teacher’s boring teaching

F.           Teacher’s intolerance of silence

13.       Which do you think often prevents your speaking  English process?

A.          Unable to find words and structures

B.          Unable to find ideas

C.          Teacher’s unenthusiasm

D.          Teacher’s interruption or anger

E.           Too much teacher’s talking time

APPENDIX B

Post-questionnaire for students

This survey questionnaire is designed for the study of factors affecting motivation in learning English speaking of the Grade 10-11 students at 1 high school. Your assistance in completing the following items is highly appreciated. All the information provided by you is of great use and solely for the study purpose. Thank you!

Please  circle the answer where necessary.

PART I.  PERSONAL INFORMATION

1. Your gender

A. Male                                          B. Female

2. Your hometown:

A. Village                                       B. Town    

3. How long have you been learning English? ……. years

4. Your average marks in English in the first term of Grade 10: …………

PART II.  STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LEARNING SPEAKING ENGLISH

1.  How is speaking skill important to you?

A. very               B. rather     C. normal    D. little       E. not at all

   2.  How is your aptitude to learn speaking English?

a. very high        B. high                 C. OK                  D. low                  E. very low

3. How is your attitude to learn speaking English?

     A. very high   B. high                 C.OK          D. low                  E. very low

4. How is your effort in learning speaking English?

A. very high       B. high                 C. OK                  D. low                  E. very low

5. How is your desire to learn speaking English?

A. very high       B. high                 C. OK                  D. low                  E. very low

6. How much do you feel interested in speaking English in class?

A.          very            B. rather      C. normal    D. little       E. not at all

7. How often do you speak English in English class time?

Always     B. usually   C. sometimes                 D. rarely     E. never except when asked by teacher

8. Do you feel reluctant to speak English in class?

A. Yes, always             B. Yes, often                  C. Yes, sometimes         

D. No, I like speaking very much.             F. No, I speak willingly

9. What do you think about the topics in your textbook?

A. very interesting       B. interesting                 C. OK                  D. boring              E. very boring

10. What do you think about speaking tasks in your textbook?

A. too difficult             B. difficult  C. OK                  D. easy                 E. too easy

PART III. FACTORS INCREASE STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LEARNING SPEAKING ENGLISH AND STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES APPLIED BY TEACHERS

11. What results have you achieved through the recent lessons?

A.          I am more self- confident and interested in speaking English

B.          My English speaking skill has been improved much

C.          My English knowledge has been widened

D.          I have realized that learning to speak English well is not difficult

E.           I am always willing to speak English in class

F.           Others (please specify):……

12. Which of the following factors may encourage you to speak English in class? (You can have more than one choice)

A.          Interesting topics in the textbook

B.          Teachers’ good characteristics (enthusiasm, helpfulness, friendliness…)

C.          Teachers’ teaching methods

D.          Pleasant class atmosphere

E.           Various speaking activities

F.           High oral marks you may get

13. In speaking lesson, which of the following activities does your teacher often use to motivate you and which do you feel enjoyable? (table ....)

Table B.1 – Speaking activities applied by teachers

Speaking activities	Your teacher often uses	You enjoy
Completing dialogue practice
Role play
Interview
Games
Free discussion and problem solving
Structure-based activities
Making up sentences orally
Question and answer exchanges
Picture description
Ranking exercises
Story telling
Rearrangement

14. Which of the following activities do you like most in a speaking lesson?

A.          Working individually

B.          Working in pairs

C.          Working in groups (of 3 to 5 students)

15. Which of the followings do you think your teachers should do to motivate you to take part in speaking activities? (You can have more than one choice)

A. Not interrupting you when you make mistakes

B. Accepting a variety of your answers

C. Encouraging you with marks and rewards

D.  Being enthusiastic, friendly and helpful

E. Creating some interesting games and activities

F. Creating pleasant class atmosphere

G. Having clear instructions

APPENDIX C

Questionnaire for teachers

This survey questionnaire is designed for the study of factors affecting motivation in learning English speaking of the Grade 10-11 students at 1 high school. Your assistance in completing the following items is highly appreciated. All the information provided by you is of great use and solely for the study purpose. Thank you!

Please  circle the answer where necessary.

PART I- PERSONAL INFORMATION

1. Your gender

A. Male                                          B. Female

2. Your age:

A. Under 25                                    B. From 26- 35 years              

C. From 36- 45 years                      D. From 46- 55 years

E. Over 56 years

3. Years of teaching English

A. From 1 – 3 years                        B. From 3 - 5 years

C. From 6 - 10 years                       D. Over 10 years

PART II- TEACHER’S OPINION ON STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN SPEAKING ENGLISH AND TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS

1.            What do you think of the importance of speaking to your students?

A.                       Speaking helps students to improve other language skills and language linguistic knowledge

B.                       Speaking can bring students with enjoyment and pleasure.

C.                       Speaking helps students to broaden knowledge of the world

D.                       Students can communicate much through speaking.

E.                        Others (please specify): ………………………………

2. Which stages of the speaking lesson do you find that it is necessary to motivate your students?

A. Pre- speaking stage

B. While- speaking stage

C. Post- speaking stage

D. All above mentioned stages

3.            What problems are you facing in teaching speaking English? (You can have one more choice)

A.                       Large classes

B.                       Students’ different proficiency levels

C.                       Students’ reluctance

D.                       Limited time

E.                        Poor facilities

F.                        Others (please specify): ..…

4.  How often do you use the following activities in speaking lesson?

(write 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 for each answer)

1. always            2.often                 3.sometimes         4.rarely       5.never

A.           Individual work

B.           Pair  work

C.           Group work

5. How often do you give the following speaking activities to your students to do?

(write 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 for each answer)

  1. always          2.often                 3.sometimes         4.rarely       5.never

-  Completing dialogue practice

- Role play

- Interview

- Games

- Free discussion and problem solving

- Structure- based activities

- Making up sentences orally

- Question and answer exchanges

- Picture description

- Ranking exercises

- Story telling

- Discussion ordering

- Rearrangement

- Topic based discussion

- Mime stories

- Visual aids (pictures, maps, music, handouts)

- Other (please specify): …….

6.  Which of the following techniques do you use to motivate students to speak English?

(You can have more than one choice)

A.           Combining textbook and relevant materials

B.           Giving feedback regularly by marking and giving comments on students’ speaking

C.           Creating the competitive atmosphere

D.           Creating the co- operative atmosphere

E.            Applying rewards and punishment policy (giving positive marks for your students’ participation)

F.            Varying communicative activities

G.           Encouraging them to speak by suggested questions

7. What do you do to create good relationship with your students to help them speak English better? (You can have more than one choice)

A.           Talking to them in friendly ways

B.           Remaining in the teacher’s seat

C.           Walking round the class and giving help

D.           Standing near students who speak much

E.            Doing nothing and letting them talk freely

F.            Always being tolerant, enthusiastic and helpful

G.           Others (please specify):….

8.  What do you think about speaking skill in Tieng Anh 10 textbook?

(write 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 for each comment)

1. very bad         2. bad         3. OK          4. good       5. very good

A.           Topics

B.           Order of lessons

C.           Tasks

D.           Illustration (pictures in each lesson)

APPENDIX D

Interview questions

1.            Why do you want to learn speaking English?

2.            Is speaking English very important for your future? Why?

3.            What benefits can you get if you speak English well?

4.            What did you think about speaking English when you started Grade 10?

5.            What changes do you have in your interest in learning speaking English after you have participated into the recent lessons?

6.            How often do you feel reluctant to speak English in class and what makes do you feel so?

7.            Does your teacher often encourage you to speak English in class?

8.            What do you think about teacher’s attitude and behavior when teaching speaking English in class?

9.             Do you believe in your ability to use English in the future? Did you believe it before?

10.       Which of the following activities do you like your teacher use in your speaking lesson and why?

Completing dialogue practice

- Role play

- Interview

- Games

- Free discussion and problem solving

- Structure-based activities

- Making up sentences orally

- Question and answer exchanges

- Picture description

- Ranking exercises

- Story telling

- Rearrangement

- Visual aids (pictures, maps, music, handouts

11.       Which of following activities do you like most in a speaking lesson and why?

-                Working individually

-                Working in pairs

-                Working in groups

12.       What should your teacher do to motivate you to speak?

APPENDIX E

Interview transcript

Table E.1 –  Kind of motivation

1	Oh, I wants to study abroad when I have a chance
2	Yes, I am easier to get high oral marks than other skills
3	That’s right. Because it is a part of my compulsory subject at school
4	I like it. I like learning English and I want to understand more about British and American culture.
5	Let me see. I learn English for the final examination.
6	If I speak English well, I will be easy to find a job in the future. I think so.
7	That’s right. I want to pass the university entrance exam and I want to become a teacher of English
8	Yes, I like listening and singing songs in English.
9	Yes, I study English speaking because I see it will be necessary for my job in the future. After leaving university, I want to live on my own; I do not depend on my parents any more
10	I know when I study at university, I have to study English, too. So, why don’t I study it now? Though I am very busy with studying Math, Physics and Chemistry for my subjects of university entrance exam, I sometimes use time for English

Table E.2 – Increasing interests in learning speaking English

1	I do not want to learn English speaking. I feel it very difficult. I am often pressured when learning it.
2	My teacher always encourages me. Although I try my best to learn, my English seems not to improve much
3	At first, I felt very difficult to express my opinions in English. Now, it is easier. I can talk with my friends and teachers in English
4	Of course, my English has improved much. I dare I will get high oral marks.
5	I like speaking English much, especially in recent lessons, I see it is easy to learn
6	Really, I do not know much about English though I have tried. I do not like English especially English speaking.
7	Yes, I have realized that English is not difficult. Perhaps, I will take university examination in English
8	When I started to learn English, I like it very much. However, the teaching method unmotivated me. Now, my interest has considerably increased.
9	Yes, my English has improved much.
10	I think my English will be more fluent and accurate if I try harder.

Table 16 – Factors making students unwilling to speak English

1	I am not confident enough to speak in front of my teacher and classmates. I am afraid of making mistakes.
2	I see topics in the textbook are quite difficult for me. I like speaking, but I cannot speak much.
3	I want to be better in English but the teacher’s bad pronunciation and poor knowledge of English language decrease my desire.
4	I see teacher’s behavior and attitude are very important. It encourages me to speak.
5	I like speaking English. But I sometimes cannot find words and structures to express my ideas.
6	My English knowledge is not very good. That is why I do not speak much in class.
7	Yes, I don’t want to speak in class although I know class is a good environment for me to practice. I don’t feel self- confident
8	No, I am not accustomed to speaking in class. I feel very ashamed when I stand in frond of my classmates.
9	I know practising speaking is useful but no one speaks to me, so I don’t
10	I know the importance of speaking English in my study and future, but I don’t know why I can’t speak willingly. Indeed, I am afraid every one will laugh me

Table 17 – Students’ preferences in teaching techniques and communicative activities

1	Of course. I like to work in groups because my group members and I can share ideas and help to find structures.
2	I strongly like communicative games in class because they make me funny and easy to remember new words
3	I agree. I enjoy working in pairs. I feel more self-confident because my classmates often help me.
4	Yes, of course. Pair work and group work are suitable and useful. We can help each other correct mistakes and share ideas.
5	Yes, I want the teacher to guide me before I speak because I will speak in the right direction.
6	Sometimes, I want to speak freely after some tasks. I like to make a speech by my self. I see it is my product.
7	Visual aids? Oh, they are wonderful. I like them very much. But I don’t like communicative games. They are too noisy.
8	I enjoy role-play too. It is interesting and useful.
9	Yes, I like rearrangement activity. It’s easy.
10	Certainly, games before speaking motivated me much

Table 18 – What prevents students’ speaking English process.

1	My teacher often gets angry when I make mistakes. This makes me under pressure. I cannot speak any more.
2	My teacher is not enthusiastic. Sometimes I find quite difficult to express my idea, but my teacher has no help.
3	My vocabulary is very poor, which breaks up my presentation.
4	My teacher talks too much. She is not time- saving. We haven’t got enough time for speaking.
5	Sometimes I have no idea to say
6	My teacher often interrupts me. She wants to express her ideas. That’s why I don’t want to speak.
7	Sometimes I can’t finish my presentation because I can’t find words and structures to express my ideas.
8	I hope my teacher will be more enthusiastic. If she does so, she can help us to find out words and structures to speak.
9	Yes, My teacher sometimes interrupt me when I am speaking, which confuses me much
10	May be my teacher is not enthusiastic. She doesn’t usually listen to me.

Table 19 – What teacher should do to motivate students to speak

1	I want my teacher to be more enthusiastic, friendly and helpful. Because her behavior will encourage us to speak.
2	Teacher should accept a variety of our answers. In speaking, I think we can express our ideas though they are very different from teacher’s.
3	In fact, we are often pressured in speaking lessons. I think communicative games can help. They help us reduce stress and be easy to speak out.
4	Teacher’s clear instruction is very important. It helps us easy to speak out and speak in the right direction.
5	My teacher should be more tolerant. She should not repeat our mistakes many times. We feel to lose face if she does so.
6	I think marks are very important. If I speak well, she should encourage me with high marks.
7	I feel tired of the same teaching way every lesson. Teachers can motivate us with communicative games or communicative activities such as interviewing, working in groups or pairs.
8	I think teachers are not only friendly, enthusiastic, helpful and tolerant but also good at English.
9	Yes, I want my teacher to be friendlier. Now, she’s quite strict.
10	Of course, I want my teacher to vary speaking activities. Monotonous activities make me tired.

APPENDIX F

Classroom observation checklists

a) Lesson profile

1) Aims: …………………………

2) Setting: …………………………………………….

- Time allowance: ……………

- Class: ……………………….

- Unit: ……………………….

3) Teacher: …………………..

4) Learners: ………………….

b) Observation

Aspects observed	Comments
Students’ motivation on the speaking lessons
Students’ attitude towards speaking activities
Students’ involvement in the speaking activities
Students’ reactions to teacher’s techniques
Students’ preferences for teacher’s techniques
Students’ interaction with each other while completing the tasks
How the teacher deals with noise and silence in class

Overall comments: ___________________________________________.